hastened to the South immediately, sending 700 ships also, to cut off the Duke's retreat; and at length, with inferior numbers, came up to the enemy at Senlac (nine miles from Hastings), where a battle ensued, which lasted from nine o'clock in the morning till night-fall. By stratagem, William drew the Saxons from their close order, and then fell upon them with his cavalry; the death of Harold, from an arrow piercing his brain, adding to the confusion. The crown was won; and Battle Abbey was built by the conqueror, to commemorate his victory.

THE SAXONS.-A retrospect.

The following table will shew the distinctions of rank among the Anglo-Saxons:

I.-King. II.-Athelings. III.-Eldermen or Earls.

Greater.

Less.

V.-Ceorls.

Theows, or Thralls.

VI.-Serfs,

I. The King was elected by the Witan, or Great Council, from the family of the preceding monarch, but if the times demanded it, the heir-apparent was passed over. The royal duties were-to summon the Witan; appoint to high offices; and to mint coin. II. The Ethelings or Athelings were the members of the royal family.

III. The Eldermen ruled over their respective shires, or shares of the country, dispensing justice, and heading the forces in time of war.

IV. The Thanes were lesser nobles, having, at least, five hydes of land. The Greater Thanes were subject only to the king.

V. The Ceorl was bound to the soil generally, but was armed in times of emergency, and could hold land, sometimes rising to be a Thane.

VI. The Serfs were British descendants, slaves taken in war or criminals, besides those purchased from abroad. They were sold with the land, and could be mutilated and even slain on payment of a fine.

The King, Abbots, Aldermen and greater Thanes, formed the WITAN, which met at least three times a year, at the feasts of Christmas, Easter, and Whit suntide. Their duties were to frame and execute laws; elect and depose the King; raise taxes, and maintain the defences.

Manners and Customs. Trial by ordeal was made to establish the guilt or innocence of a person charged with crime, if he could not bring forward the proper number of witnesses to swear to his innocence. The ordeals consisted of plunging the hand into hot water to remove a weight placed in it, or in grasping a bar of red hot iron: if no wound remained after 3 days the innocence was presumably manifest.

The Architecture of the Saxons was of a very primitive character-wood being principally used in construction-the roof being thatched or covered with shingle: the floors covered with rushes, and the walls with hangings. The fire was made in the centre of the room, the smoke issuing through an opening above. The furniture consisted of benches and boards, straw mattresses being the general bed furniture, and the drinking vessels being made of wood, horn, or silver.

NORMAN DYNASTY. 1066-1154.

The Conqueror was an illegitimate descendant of Rollo, the first Duke of Normandy. Immediately after the battle of Hastings Edgar Atheling was crowned King in London by the influence of Stigand, and Edwin and Morcar, two Saxon Earls; William proceeded to London through Romney and Dover; Southwark was burned by William and then London submitted, Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury leading the way. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, by Aldred, Archbishop of York; the shouts of acclamation being taken for the cry of revolt by the Norman soldiery outside, a massacre

ensued. During the first year William shewed his excellent statesmanship in conciliating the Saxons by retaining their laws, customs, privileges, and prejudices: unfortunately he then went to Normandy, and in his absence his regent, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, acted so tyrannically that rebellion ensued, and the Conqueror commenced severe measures against the Saxons, marching to the west against Exeter and then to the north (1069), where the Norman garrisons of Durham and York had been put to the sword; in revenge William devastated a district between the Ouse and the Tyne, 60 miles in length.

This is thus spoken of by the chronicler, William of Malmesbury: "From York to Durham not an "inhabited village afterwards remained: fire, slaugh“ter, and desolation made it such a wilderness.

"He ordered every living man to be destroyed, and every article that could minister to the necessities "of life, houses, implements of husbandry, &c.

"There followed so great a scarcity in the ensuing year, a severe famine involved the innocent popula"in so much misery, that in a Christian nation more "than one hundred thousand souls of both sexes and 66 all ages perished of want. When I see that inno"cent children, youths in the prime of their age, and 66 grey bearded old men perished from hunger, I am more disposed to pity the sorrows and sufferings of "the wretched people than to undertake the hopeless "task of screening one by lying flatteries, guilty of "such wholesale massacre.'

The Tower of London was erected to keep the city in subjection, and a similar fortress was built at Winchester-the capital of that time; at a later date the Cinque (5) Ports of Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe, and Sandwich were established.

The next revolt was on the Welsh frontier; to restrain any further outbreaks forts were built commanding this border. A chronic rebellion had also for years existed in the Fen district, where Hereward the

H

last of the Saxons formed a Camp of Refuge in a wooden fort in the Isle of Ely, until finally defeated.

Having suppressed all the risings at home the Conqueror marched into Scotland, to punish Malcolm for incursions into England; and forced him to submit. The only other disturbances to the king's government, were a conspiracy headed by Waltheof and William's barons, which cost the life of the former; and a threatened invasion by Canute the king of Denmark; and two feeble attempts made by the sons of Harold II. to recover the throne, at Bristol and Plymouth.

The Conqueror had little comfort in his family, his elder son Robert having risen in rebellion against him, instigated by the king of France, until in 1079-at the siege of Gerberoi-the two came into actual combat, and William was unhorsed and wounded by Robert.

William established the New Forest over a district of 30 square miles, in doing which many houses and even churches were burnt down, though it must be remembered the site was nearly all forest-land previously: very cruel forest laws were also enacted. He also established the Curfew Bell (couvre, cover-feu, fire), at the ringing of which at sunset (in summer), and 8 o'clock (in winter), all fires and lights were ordered to be put out, to avoid the danger of conflagration as the buildings were mostly of timber.

He also caused the Domesday Book to be compiled (1085), which contained a record of all the lands in the kingdom, and the royal revenues rising therefrom. EFFECTS OF THE CONQUEST.

I. A new dynasty was established; and as a consequence the old nobility became subservient to the new, and the people the oppressed subjects of the dominant race, the lands changing hands at the same time as the public offices and honours; the process of change being attended with internal strife, until the two struggling races merged into one with ommon interests after the lapse of a couple of turies.

Il. The Feudal system of the continent was introduced there had been a feudal system here in the time of the Saxons, by which feuds or feofs (estates) were held on condition of service, but many changes were introduced by the Conqueror, the general effect of which was the strengthening the power of the crown at the expense of the baron.

By this system the lord superior and the vassal mutually protected each other; the latter giving military service for his lands; promising faithful service in the ceremony of Homage, confirming this by an act of Fealty taken with an oath, in return for which he received Investment or conveyance of the estate from his lord.

Other accompaniments of the feudal system were Aids, to ransom the lord if taken prisoner, for expenses of knighting his eldest son, and providing dowry for his eldest daughter.

Relief, a tax on succession to an estate as heir. Primer Seizin, (first fruits) were the first year's profits of the land.

Escheat was the lapse of an estate, on the failure of heirs or for treason, to the lord superior.

WILLIAM II. 1087—1100.

Rufus, or the Red King, was elected through the influence of Lanfranc, but Odo headed a party in favour of Robert; the latter were however defeated, their stronghold-Rochester Castle was taken, and war was even carried into Robert's dukedom in 1090, in which several of the strong forts of Normandy were secured by William, an agreement being finally come to by which the survivor was to rule over both England and Normandy.

While absent across the channel, Malcolm of Scotland invaded the north, he was however forced to do homage; and on his again devastating the north was checked and slain, by Roger de Mowbray, at Alnwick Castle.

Similar raids were made by the Welsh in the west.