ing the latter on the W., and the four connected by a chain-the Bolor Tagh, running N. and S. Recent travellers, however, affirm that we must join the last three,—the Himalayas, Kuen Lun, and Bolor into one system, running from S.E. to N.W., and uniting with the northern system in a great knot, W. of Yarkand. In other words the valley between the Kuen Lun and Himalayas has been seen to be very shallow.

Of course the real character of a mountain range must be here borne in mind, as implying not a connected line of single mountains as a chain is made of single links, but an elevated mass of land, flanked by mountains, and having many ridges and lines of heights extending through it so as to occupy a great width. In fact in this region we have no distinct water shedding (dividing) ranges, but rather a highland region, the centre of which is occupied by a broad belt of neutral ground, on which originate almost intermixedly, the waters running in both directions from it. So far from there being any N. to S. Bolor, the loftiest ridges of the Pamir district run E. and W."-R. G. S. Proceedings.

The Altai Mts. are continued to the N.E. in the Yablonoi, Aldan, and Stanovoi Mts.; while on the E. of the table-land of Thibet we have the chains of Peling, Nanling, and Yunling, of W. China.

On the W. side of India are,—the Soliman Mts., between Hindostan and Afghanistan; with the E. and W. Ghauts, and the Vindhya Hills, flanking the tableland of the Deccan on the E. W. and N. sides respectively Still further W. is the long but less elevated range of the Paropamisus Mts., flanking the table-land of Persia; and the Arabian Heights, enclosing that of Arabia; with the Taurus and Anti-Taurus respectively, S. and N. of the plateau of Anatolia (A. Minor). The Caucasus Mts. run between the Black and Caspian Seas, having Mt. Elburz nearly in the centre; the chain of Elburz forms the N. edge of the Tableland of Iran, having Demavend near the S. shores of the Caspian Sea.

PLAINS.-These include Siberia and Tartary, China, and Hindostan in the valleys of the Ganges and Indus; and the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris.

COAST-LINE. This is nearly 36,000 miles, but is small compared with the area, giving only one mile of coast-line for every 528 miles of surface, the central portions being 1,600 miles from the sea.

In proceeding round the coast from the G. of Kara we successively pass the following capes, rivers, inlets, &c., which must be all found on the map:-the G. of Obi, Tazovski G., G. of Yenesei, C. Severo or N.E. Cape, the R. Lena, C. Sviatoi, Liakhov I. or New Siberia, N. Cape, C. Vostotchni or E. Cape, Behring St. (36 miles wide), G. of Anadir, Behring S., Kamtchatka S., C. Lopatka, Kurile St. and Is., S. of Okhotsk (containing Penjinsk and Ghijinsk B., Saghalien I., and the G. of Tartary), the Japanese Is. and G. of Japan, the Isthmus and St. of Corea, the Whang-Hai or Yellow S. (with the G. of Pecheli, and G. of Leatong), the R. Yangtze Kiang, Hanchow B., Chusan I., the Tung Hai or Eastern S., with Loo Choo Is., the I. of Formosa and Formosa Channel, Hong Kong I., Hainan I. and G. of Tonquin, C. Cambodia, G. of Siam, C. Romania, and I. of Singapore.

In the Indian Ocean are,-Penang I., Nicobar and Andaman Is., G. of Martaban, C. Negrais, the G. and S. of Bengal, Ceylon, Palk's St., and G. of Manaar, C. Comorin, the Laccadive Is., the Arabian S., G. of Cambay, G. of Cutch, G. of Oman, and Persian G., Ras al Had, Kuria Muria Is., G. of Aden, St. of Babel Mandeb (29 miles wide), the Red S., the G. of Suez, and of Akaba.

The ISLANDS of Asia include Saghalien, the Kuriles, Japan, Loo Choo, Formosa, Hainan, and Singapore, all in the Pacific; Andamans, Ceylon, Maldives, and Laccadives, in the Indian; and Cyprus, Rhodes, and the 1- Isles of the Archipelago, in the Mediterranean.

SYSTEMS. The drainage areas of Asia are the Arctic, Indian, and Pacific O.; that of

the Mediterranean, and its adjuncts; and the Inland Drainage Systems.

(a) Rivers Flowing into the Arctic Ocean.-These are of great length but little importance, as they are frozen for the greater part of the year, and are unnavigable: moreover they flow through almost inhospitable wastes. They include the Obi, 2,600 miles long, draining an area of 14 millions of sq. miles; rising, in several of its tributaries, in the Altai Mts., and emptying itself into the G. of Obi; its feeders are the Irtish (Ishim and Tobol), the Chulim, and Ket. The Yenesei, 2,900 miles long, drains an area of 1,100,000 sq. miles, rising W. of L. Kosgol, and emptying itself into the G. of Yenesei; its tributaries are on the right bank, and include the Oka, Angara (flowing through L. Baikal), and the three Tunguskas. The Lena, 2,500 miles long, drains an area of 900,000 sq. miles, rising W. of L. Baikal, and receiving the waters of the Vitim, Viloui, and Aldan. To the E. of this is the Indigirka; besides, there are many smaller rivers, all having a N. course into the Atlantic O.

(b) Flowing into the Pacific are, the Amoor, 2,300 miles long, with a basin having an area of 900,000 sq. miles; with its tributaries the Soongari and Zeya. The Peiho, 250 miles long, emptying itself into the G. of Pecheli. The Hoang Ho or Yellow R., 2,000 miles long, and draining an area of 400,000 sq. miles, rising in E. Tibet, and flowing E., N., E., S., and E., and emptying itself near the mouth of the Yangtze Kiang into the Yellow S., its middle valley being separated from that of the latter river by the Mts. of Peling, in China. The Yangtze Kiang is 3,200 miles long, and drains an area of 700,000 sq. miles; it rises in the Kinsha Kiang, in Central Tibet, in the same latitude as the source of the Hoang Ho, but to the W. of it, and flows S.E., N.E., and E. Still further S. is the Chookiang_or Canton R., 1,100 miles long, having the Isle of Hong Kong at its mouth. The Makiang or Mekong, 1,600 miles long, rises in S.E. Tibet, and flows through China, Birmah, Siam, Anam,

and Cambodia, having a S.E. course. To the W. of this is the Meinam, 900 miles long, flowing into the G. of Siam.

(c) Flowing into the Indian O.—The Saluen, running into the G. of Martaban. The Brahmapootra, 930 miles long, rising on the N. side of the Himalayas, and emptying itself into the B. of Bengal near the mouths of the Ganges.

The rivers of India have been already given in the geography of the Colonies, and will be merely

tabulated here.

The only remaining rivers of importance flowing into the Indian O. are, the Euphrates and Tigris, which unite into the Shutt-el-Arab and flow into the head of the Persian G.; Beloochistan, Persia, and Arabia being very ill supplied with streams.

(d) Flowing into the Mediterranean, &c., are,-the Orontes (200 miles long), and Leontes, in Colo Syria: the Meander (230 miles long), in A. Minor; and the Kizil Irmak (Halys), flowing into the Black S.

(e) Inland Drainage. This includes the rivers flowing into the Caspian and Aral S., as well as into the Recipient Lakes of Tibet, &c. Among them are,— the Kour, and Aras (Araxes), flowing into the Caspian S., on the W.; the Amoo or Oxus, flowing into the S.; and the Sir Daria (Jaxartes), flowing into the N. of the Aral S. Besides are, the Jordan, flowing into Dead S., 1,312 ft. below the level of the Mediterranean;

the Helmund, in Afghanistan, flowing W. into L. Hamoon; the Tarim, flowing to the E. into Lobnor, in N. Tibet.

LAKES. These are very important, and include the following: (a) Transmission L.: Baikal, 14,800 sq. miles; Kosgol, 4,500 sq. miles; Tchany; and Zaisan, 1,800 sq. miles, in Siberia. Tongting, 2,000 sq. miles; and Poyang, 800 sq. miles, in China. Erivan, 500 sq. miles, in Trans-Caucasia, and Tiberias, 76 sq. miles.

(b) Recipient L.: Balkash, 7,000 sq. miles (Tenghis); Lobnor, Ike-Aral, Ubsa, Alaktu, and Ko-KoNoor, 1,500 sq. miles; Tengri, 800 sq. miles; and Palte, in Central Asia. Urumiah, 1.800 sq. miles; and Van, 1,600 sq. miles, in Kurdistan. And Aral, 26,000 sq. miles, E. of the Caspian (130,000 sq. miles). Dead Sea, 360 sq miles.

CLIMATE. Of course the climate of Asia varies according to its great extent of latitude, and differences of elevation. In the N. the cold is extreme, the average being below the freezing point, though the summer for the short time it lasts is comparatively hot, melting the frozen soil to a depth, however, of only four or five feet.

The Central portions are very dry; the S. and E. hot and moist within the subtropical and warm temperate zones. Hindostan has a wet and a dry season (see Colonies), but Arabia and Persia mostly fall within the rainless districts of the earth. Monsoons occur in the S., and Typhoons are frequent in the China Seas. We accordingly find that the steppes. of Siberia are mostly barren wastes, except where covered by forests of coniferous trees. The Central portion is arid or pasture. The Peninsulas on the S. and E. are luxuriant in vegetation, yielding rice, millet, cotton, sugar, coffee, indigo, tea, and maize, besides ginger, pepper, cinnamon, &c.

The animals of the N. district are,-deer, elk, wolf, bear, and furbearers; of the Centre, the yak, horse, dromedary, and sheep; of the S.,-the fiercest carnivora (lion, tiger, hyena, and jackal), the quadrumana