the continuity between the subject and the predicate; the latter, between the two predicates.

Examples for Practice.

1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture are deserving of general attention.

2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a small and inconsiderable portion of the universe.

3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show the incorrectness of his position.

4. Nature through all her works delights in variety.

5. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to depict the horrors of the scene.

6. Christianity is in a most important sense the religion of sorrow. 7. A man of great wealth may for want of education and refinement of manner be a mere cipher in society.

8. Truth like gold shines brighter by collision.

9. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one of the highest Christian graces.

10. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will bring in time large accumulations.

RULE 3. Dependent Clauses. A dependent clause should be separated by a comma, or by commas, from the clause upon which it depends.

NOTE 1. Clauses are dependent, when one of them is subject to the other for the completion of the sense.

NOTE 2. One of the dependent clauses usually begins with if, unless, until, when, where, or other word expressive of condition, purpose, cause, time, place, and the like; as, "If you would succeed in business, be honest and industrious." "The tree will not bear fruit in autumn, unless it blossoms in spring." This conditional word, however, is not always expressed, the condition being sometimes implied; as, "Breathe into a man an earnest purpose, and you awaken in him a new power." Here the meaning is, "If you breathe into a man an earnest purpose, you will awaken," &c.

NOTE 3. This rule does not apply where the grammatical connection is very close, the succeeding clause in that case being of a restrictive character; as, "You will reap as you sow," "You may go when you please."

NOTE 4. For the same reason, clauses united by the conjunction that should not be separated by a comma; as, "He went abroad that he might have opportunities for study." When, however, the conjunction is removed some distance from the verb, or the words "in order" precede, so that the grammatical continuity is somewhat broken, the comma is used; as, "He went through the principal provinces of the empire, that he might see for himself the condition of the people." "He went abroad, in order that he might see foreign countries."

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Examples for Practice.

[N. B. In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, insert not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also those required by all the preceding rules.]

1. If you would succeed in business be punctual in observing your engagements.

2. Every man if he would succeed in business must be punctual in observing his engagements.

3. The days in December you know are at their shortest and therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have much daylight.

4. The index at the end of the book will enable the pupil if his memory fail him to discover the particular rule which he needs. 5. The reader should however as he proceeds from sentence to sentence make a note of whatever strikes his attention.

6. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be forgotten.

7. Good deeds though forgotten are not in every case lost.

8. John went last year to Canton where he is doing they say an excellent business.

9. If wishes were horses beggars might ride.

10. Unless you bridle your tongue you will assuredly be shut out from good society.

11. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we boast of could the world see our real motive.

12. Attend that you may receive instruction.

13. You may go home as soon as you like.

14. One object of studying Rhetoric is that we may compose better. 15. He studied Rhetoric in order that he might become a better writer.

QUESTIONS. Which of the commas used in Note 1 can be explained by any of the rules given thus far?- which in Note 2? - which in Note 3? which in Note 4?

RULE 4. Relative Clauses. A clause introduced by a relative pronoun should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, unless the clause is restrictive in its character.*

*The teacher should at this point take particular pains in accustoming the student to distinguish clearly and promptly between clauses which are, and those which are

NOTE 1. See Note under Rule 2, for an explanation of what is meant by restrictive clauses.

NOTE 2. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if it is immediately followed by a word or a phrase inclosed in commas; as, "Those friends, who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of Robertson's future eminence, were at length amply rewarded."

NOTE 3. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if several words intervene between it and its grammatical antecedent; as, "He preaches most eloquently, who leads the most pious life." In like manner, of which and of whom, even when used restrictively, are preceded by a comma; as, “No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the groundwork."

NOTE 4. When the relative has for its antecedent several succeeding nouns or clauses, it should be separated from them by a comma, even though the relative clause is restrictive. Thus: "There are fruits which never ripen." "There are apples, pears, and plums, which never ripen." Here, if the comma after "plums" is omitted, the fact of never ripening is restricted to plums, and the meaning is, "There are apples, there are pears, and there are unripening plums." But, by inserting the comma, the restriction is made to refer to all three of these objects.

Examples for Practice.

1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous pas sion had now taken full possession of him.

2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for vengeance. 3. The man of letters who has constantly before him examples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of excellence.

4. Books which are the repositories of knowledge are an indispen sable part of the furniture of a house.

5. Every teacher must love a pupil who is docile.

6. The child was much attached to his teacher who loved him dearly. 7. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we are born. 8. The eye which sees all things is unseen to itself.

9. Death is the season which tests our principles.

10. Civil war is an awful evil of which however history furnishes many examples.

11. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who has never been at sea.

12. The father of Epic poetry is Homer who has given us in the Iliad the story of Troy divine.

13. The powers which now move the world are the printing-press and the telegraph.

not, restrictive. "It is barbarous to injure men who have shown us a kindness." Here the first part of the sentence lays down a proposition, and the relative clause restricts the meaning to certain persons. "Give time to the study of nature, whose laws are all deeply interesting." Here the relative clause is not restrictive, but merely presents an additional thought.

14. America may well boast of her Washington whose character and fame are the common property of the world.

15. The man who uses profane language condemns the man who takes his neighbor's property though both in the eyes of God are alike guilty.

QUESTIONS. Which of the commas used in Note 2 can be explained by any of the rules now given?- which in Note 3? — which in Note 4? which in the foot-note?

RULE 5. Co-ordinate Clauses. In continued sentences, the several co-ordinate clauses or members, if simple in construction, are separated from each other by commas.

NOTE 1. If, however, these co-ordinate members are complex and involved, especially if they have commas within themselves, the members should be separated by a semicolon; as, "Crafty men, though they may pretend otherwise, contemn studies; simple men, though they really care nothing about the matter, yet pretend to admire them; wise men only use them."

Examples for Practice.

1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise men use them.

2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you promise. 3. Cæsar was dead the senators were dispersed all Rome was in confusion.

4. France was again reduced to its original geographical boundaries and England after a struggle of twenty years was undisputed mistress of the seas.

5. Modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels alike mountains and rivers and dykes out old ocean himself.

RULE 6. Grammatical Expressions in the same Construction.-Grammatical expressions forming a series in the same construction should be separated from each other, and from what follows, by a comma.

NOTE 1. A grammatical expression is a collection of words, having some grammatical dependence and connection, but not containing in themselves a predicate.

NOTE 2. If the expressions are brief, and there are but two of them, connected by and, or, or nor, no comma between them is needed; as, "Hard study and neglect of exercise impair the health." If, however, the two connected expressions differ much in form, it is better to set them off by commas; as, "Hard study, and the entire absence of attention to the matter of diet, bring on disease."

NOTE 3. If the series of expressions brings the sentence to a close, the last of them, of course, is not followed by a comma, but by a period or some other point greater than a comma. See foot-note, p. 20.

Examples for Practice.

1. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness in the choice of friends are important traits of character.

2. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts from malignity and our actions from vice is our chief concern.

3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a paler sky?

4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill the mind with great ideas.

5. On the rich and the eloquent on nobles and priests the Puritans looked down with contempt.

QUESTION. What commas in Rule 6, and in Notes 1 and 2, can be explained by any of the rules thus far given?

RULE 7. Words in the same Construction.-When words of the same kind follow each other in a series, in the same grammatical construction, the following three cases may arise:

1. There may be a conjunction between each two of the words; as, “Industry and honesty and frugality and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of the words in the series are to be separated by commas.

2. The conjunction may be omitted, except between the last two of the words; as, "Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance are among the cardinal virtues.” In this case, all the words are to be separated from each other by commas.

3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last two words, as well as between the others; as, “Industry, honesty, frugality, temperance, are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, not only all the words of the series are to be separated from each other by commas, but a comma is to be inserted also after the last word, to separate it from what follows.

NOTE 1. A comma is not in any case to be inserted after the last word of a series, if what follows is only a single word; as, "The good will form hereafter strongerpurer, holier ties."

NOTE 2. In such expressions as "A beautiful white hors, no comma shoul' to