would be served by strategic lines. Instead of applying her own natural resources to the present-day needs of the nation China has, perforce, to resort to foreign loans.

In concluding this necessarily brief synopsis of Chinese railway progress, reference may suitably be made to a work upon the subject recently published by M. Edouard de Laboulaye, and to the figures therein given of foreign capital already provided:

Up to the close of the nineteenth century education, as the term is understood in the West, did not exist in China outside the immediate neighbourhood of the mission schools. Such knowledge as was imparted was confined almost exclusively to the old Chinese classics. In 1905 an imperial edict was promulgated initiating an entirely new and comprehensive system, not only providing for the founding of schools throughout the empire, but also defining the courses of studies to be adhered to. To-day the study of English is compulsory, and this language has been adopted as the official medium in all scientific and technical branches. Although it is not well wholly to rely upon Chinese official returns, some figures published last December by the Ministry of Education may be quoted. In 1910 the number of schools in the empire, exclusive of those under the direction of foreign missionaries and private individuals, is given as 42,444, with 1,274,928 students. At the end of 1911 there was recorded an increase of 10,206 in the number of schools, and of 351,792 in that of the students. In comparison with the total population returns these figures may appear insignificant, but the period of working and other factors must be taken into account. Again, the number of independent establishments, such as those above mentioned, must be very great; they are, in many cases, most popular and claim a large attendance. Methods of teaching by correspondence have also been introduced in several of the largest institutions, and have proved thoroughly satisfactory. Indeed, it would not be surprising to learn that this system was the most popular of any. Old habits and customs die hard in China, and from these and other motives, such as economy, many of the younger generation are content to pursue

their studies at home as their fathers and grandfathers did before them. The writer understands that representations have already been made to the Minister of Education with a view to securing for these home students the same privileges in the conferment of degrees as those enjoyed by men in the Government schools.

For the last ten years it has been the policy of the Imperial and of the more progressive provincial Governments to send abroad numbers of young students between the ages of sixteen and nineteen for an education upon Western lines. In September 1911 the Government resolved upon an extension of this policy, and it was decided, by way of an experiment, to select from the various provinces a number of younger boys, from twelve to fourteen years of age, and send them to Europe and America for a period of fourteen years. They are there to pass through every grade of education necessary for the professions to which they intend to devote themselves. This experiment will naturally be watched with the closest interest, and one can hardly doubt that, in view of the beneficial results which have already been achieved by means of the former more restricted policy, the outcome of the new departure should prove even more startling than was anticipated from the arrival in England of J. M. Barrie's Scotsman with a 3001. education.'

It will thus be inferred that there exists a strong general tendency towards the adoption of up-to-date Western methods in the system of education. Indeed, the volte face which has so suddenly been effected by the decree that only those men who had received a modern, as distinct from the ancient classic, education would be eligible for educational posts is as remarkable in its way as the immediate suppression of opium by a stroke of the Vermilion Pencil.' It is also worthy of note that the Chinese have now for the most part abandoned their former policy of acquiring a second-hand Western education from the Japanese, and appear to have decided that it is more advantageous to pursue their studies in Europe and America.

A digression on behalf of the much maligned foreign missionary may at this point be permissible. With the 'religion aspect of the question we are not at present concerned, but the writer suggests that the secular and educational side of the work has not hitherto received the recognition which should be accorded.

While it is unfortunately the case that a number of men and women who are thoroughly unsuitable and unqualified do go

1 With the rescission of this edict consequent upon the removal of the Manchu dynasty it must with regret be recorded that poppy-growing is now once more upon the increase. The extraordinary situation which has now arisen is dealt with at length in The Times of the 3rd of June.

out to China as missionaries-the old principle of the youngest son of the family taking holy orders, or the failures at home being good enough for missionaries-still the educational work which is carried on by foreigners in the far interior is on the whole worthy of high praise. These men and women live under the most difficult conditions in isolated towns and villages, perhaps hundreds of miles distant from their nearest European neighbours, knowing that at any moment they may be the objects of a fanatical anti-foreign rising and suffer the most hideous tortures, with death as a merciful release.

Despite these facts they gallantly move forward along the line of progress, working for and with their little communities, converting perhaps, but teaching always. As a medium of popular education in China the missionary has proved invaluable. The people do not care a snap of the fingers about his religion, but they do desire to learn. And if they cannot penetrate the secrets of Western civilisation and its power by any other means, they are quite prepared to listen to an exposition of the foreigner's religious doctrines and be converted-for the necessary period.

But modern education in China under the new conditions has, unfortunately, its unsatisfactory side. To anyone who possesses but a slight experience of Chinese official methods it will be a matter of no surprise to learn that in the purely native institutions the administration is too frequently notoriously laxto use no stronger term. We are continually confronted with instances of men wholly unsuitable for the posts being appointed to the higher offices; and the iniquitous system of squeeze' is as potent as in every other Government office.

While such criticism must be levelled at the administrative side, the condition of affairs when we turn to the students must seem to a foreigner almost incomprehensible; were the matter not so serious it would be ludicrous. In a word discipline is for the most part non-existent, and the teaching staffs appear to prosecute their duties entirely in accordance with the whims and fancies of their pupils. Going on strike' has been reduced to a fine art in many a Chinese school, and it has recently been asserted that during the last two years every school in Shantung, to name one province only, has been in that happy condition at least once. An authority on Chinese questions, writing in The National Review (Shanghai), gives an amusing description of the troubles of a schoolmaster in a native school.

The student [he says] lays down the law himself as to what he wants to learn and how it is to be taught. Having known nothing of discipline from his birth upward, he cannot be expected to develop it in college. If, therefore, his lecturers do not please him they can be boycotted. If he is

not prepared for his examination, the examination must be postponed. If the questions are too hard two alternatives confront the unlucky examiner: he may withdraw them and issue easier, or he may lower the standard required for a pass.'

The students appear also to take a great deal more interest in politics than in their studies, and if interfered with simply refuse to attend school.

are

It is a curious condition of affairs, but there is no adequate reason to consider it as other than transitory, despite the present serious situation and the gloomy reports which just now coming to hand from Peking and other centres. So much has already been effected in the course of the last six years towards the establishment of a sure foundation for a national educational system that if only the existing defects be properly appreciated adequate reform will surely follow. Indeed there is already evidence, from the report published by the Minister of Education four months ago, that many of these evils have been recognised. But in this, as in every other Department, the real crisis is probably primarily due to the financial deadlock. Once this is obviated it is not unreasonable to anticipate that, under the guidance of the Central Educational Conference which will be convened almost immediately, strenuous efforts will be made to pursue a policy of closer adherence to Western methods and models than has hitherto obtained.

IV

From the subject of education one naturally turns to that of books. Speaking generally-a most fatal habit where the Chinese are concerned-it may be said that up to the present the greatest demand for translations of European books has been in the direction of works of science and technology-' utility' books, as the class may conveniently be termed. Literature and art will follow, but just now the progressive Chinese are for the most part concerned with the theories and principles of Western dynamics-the secrets of physical as opposed to moral forces. As remarked above, English has been adopted as the official language in science and technology, and it will thus be apparent that as time goes on there will be less and less demand for translations.

A glance through the catalogue of works issued by one of the largest publishing firms in China affords interesting reading. The Commercial Press, Ltd., with head offices in Shanghai, employs some 1500 workpeople and is run upon the most upto-date of Western methods. The undertaking should prove the envy of many a large firm in this country. A sound system of profit-sharing,2 schools for the children, healthy surroundings * In 1910 the profits amounted to 25 per cent.

2

and sanitary conditions-all are represented. This firm deals with a considerable amount of Government printing and newspaper work, but its principal output is concerned with textbooks of every kind. These are printed in Chinese or in English with Chinese explanatory notes, and the demand is astonishing.

The catalogue includes works by Shakespeare, Scott, Charles Lamb, R. L. Stevenson, Dickens, and other well-known authors. One of the most popular books is, appropriately enough, Carlyle's French Revolution, with works by Darwin, Rousseau, and Huxley close behind. The writer recalls the fact that one of his Chinese teachers often quoted passages from Chaucer, and one day shamed him into purchasing a copy of Lord Chesterfield's Letters to his Son, since the Chinese knew far more about them than his English pupil. Pepys's Diary was another favourite classic of this particular Chinese. Incidentally it may be remarked that the prices of these reprints range from 8d. to 3s. 4d.; also that the translations must be thoroughly good and scholarly, or the Chinese will have none of them.

A certain well-known and esteemed writer upon Chinese subjects has given it as his opinion that the present renaissance of learning is comparable only to the great revival in Europe which followed the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. Even in the far interior, where foreign influence has not yet penetrated, there is frequently to be found evidence of a keen desire for this new knowledge. The writer recently observed a pathetic little notice affixed to a ramshackle schoolhouse in a country village; the inscription ran, English tote from A to G.' The Chinese language, of course, possesses no alphabet such as ours, and the mastery of so many as seven English letters was evidently to be regarded with great pride.

V

And if China owes so much of her material progress to the lessons which the West has taught her, the question may well arise whether she has not the right to make further demands in regard to her future relationship with the peoples of the West.

For many years the foreigner has landed in China in ever increasing numbers, seeking a mart for his wares, anxious to share in the rich harvest of profits which is, he is assured, waiting to be gathered in. The present crisis has only served to strengthen his assurance. To-day, amongst all classes in Great Britain, the watchword is 'China.' Engineers, army officers, merchants, doctors, artisans and labourers, skilled and otherwise-all turn their eyes to the Far East. The country of the future,' they cry; that is where the money is to be made.'