and tenor of their lives, and, by uniting with all their sensations and intellectual feelings, overpower all the pains, and augment and connect with themselves all the pleasures. Every thing beautiful and glorious brings in the ideas of God, mixes with them, and coalesces with them; for all things are from God, he is the only cause and reality, and the existence of every thing else is only the effect and proof of his existence and excellence. Let the mind be once duly imbued with this truth, and its practical applications, and every thing will afford exercise for the devout affections. Add to their unlimited extent, their purity, and perfection, and it cannot but be acknowledged, that they must be far superior to the rest, both in kind and in degree. (PHILOSOPHY, mental, § 92–99.) 103. It has already been stated, that the moral sense ought to have great influence, even in the most explicit and deliberate actions; hence the culture of its pleasures, and the correcting of its dictates, should be made a primary object of pursuit. Further, the moral sense, on urgent occasions, ought to have the sole influence: and this for several reasons. First, because it offers itself at the various occasions of life, with consistency, and generally with certainty. It warns us beforehand, and calls us to account afterward; it condemns or approves; it rewards by the pleasures of self-approbation, or punishes by the pains of self-condemnation. 100. Thirdly, the objects of other pleasures are frequently removed. No time, no place, no circumstance of life, can deprive us of this. Our hearts may be directed towards God in the greatest external confusion, as well as in the deepest silence and retirement. All the duties of life, when directed to God, become pleasures, and by the same means, every the smallest action becomes the discharge of the proper duty of time and place. Thus time is turned to its best-Secondly, the moral sense is principally advantage thus every situation of life may be converted into present comfort and future felicity. 101. Fourthly, when the love of God is thus made to arise from every object, and to exert itself in every action, it becomes of a permanent nature and will not pass into deadness or disgust, as those other pleasures do, from repeated gratification. 102. We should be glad if our limits would allow of our laying before our read. ers a view of those means which are pointed out by Hartley, for the culture of the theopathetic affections, of faith, fear, gratitude, hope, trust, resignation, and love; we must, however, content ourselves with referring to his 72d proposition on this point, and to his important rules in the 73d proposition, concerning the manner of expressing them in prayer, and other religious exercises; concluding this head with the following observations from the latter. There cannot be a more fatal delusion, than to suppose that religion is nothing but a divine philosophy in the soul; and that the foregoing theopathetic affections may exist and flourish there, though they be not cultivated by devout exercises and expressions. Experience, and many plain, obvious reasons, show the falsehood and mischievous tendency of generated by piety, benevolence, and rational self-interest. All these are explicit guides in deliberate actions; and since they are excluded, on sudden occasions, through the want of time to weigh and determine, it is highly reasonable to admit the moral sense formed from them, and whose dictates are immediate, as their substitute. -Thirdly, the greatness, the importance, and the calm nature, of the pleasures of the moral sense, with the horrors and the constant recurrence of the sense of guilt, are additional arguments to shew that these pleasures and pains were intended as the guides of life. 104. The perfection of the moral sense consists in the four following particulars: that it extend to all the actions of moment which occur in the intercourses of real life, and be a ready monitor on all such occasions: that its pleasures and pains should be so vivid as to furnish a very strong excitement to shun the path of vice, and to walk steadily in the way of religion that it should not descend to trifling or minute particulars; for, though scrupulosity is probably a necessary step in the progress of the mind to moral excellency, yet, if it continue and become the prevailing habit of the mind, it will check benevolence, and turn the love of God into a superstitious fear: lastly, it is necessary that the pleasures and pains of the moral sense should be perfectly conformable to the dictates of piety and benevolence, of which it may be considered as the substitute. 105. In order to obtain the most perfect state of the conscience, it is necessary for us to be much employed in the practical study of the sacred writings, and of the good of all denominations; in observing the living examples of goodness, and in the perusal of Christian biography; in self-examination, and in the culture of the sympathetic and theopathetic affections; and in aiming to follow, with faithfulness, the dictates of piety, benevolence, and the moral sense, such as they are at present. 106. The moral sense may be, and often is, misled by education; the dictates of this feeling, therefore, are not a perfect and infallible guide; though, in persons well educated, they are decidedly favourable to virtue. Hence, to cultivate and enlighten the moral sense in ourselves, and in others, is a duty of the highest obligation; the most disastrous consequences have ensued, both to individuals and to society, from obedience to the dictates of misguided conscience. 107. Character, to use (with some variations) the words of Mr. Belsham, from whose Elements we have taken the last paragraph, is the sum total of moral habits and and affections. That character is perfectly virtuous, all whose affections and habits tend to produce the greatest ultimate happiness of the agent, that is, in which all are perfectly consistent with pious benevolence, and in which every moral habit and affection is advanced to its most disinterested state. That character is perfectly vicious, all whose af fections and habits tend to produce the greatest ultimate misery of the agent, and in which every vicious affection and habit exists in its ultimate state. The former character, though possible, is rarely to be found; but the tendency of moral discipline is, to produce a continual ap. proximation towards it; and it will probably be the ultimate state of all the rational creatures of God. The character of perfect vice is impossible; it never can actually exist; for no being can pursue misery for its own sake. That agent is said to be virtuous, though imperfectly so, all whose affections and habits tend to his own ultimate felicity, but, not having attained their most perfect state, are subject to occasional deviations from the rules of piety and benevolence. That agent is denominated vicious, but imperfectly so, in whom there is one moral habit which tends to produce misery, or to diminish happiness: for example; intemperance, avarice, dishonesty, impiety. The reason is obvious. The existence of a single habit of this description is inconsistent with the perfect happiness of the agent, and necessarily involves him in proportional misery. So the prevalence of a single disorder is inconsistent with perfect health; and if a remedy be not applied in time, may be productive of the most fatal consequences. PHILYDRUM, in botany, a genus of the Monandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: spathe oneflowered; perianthium none; corolla four-petalled, irregular: capsule threecelled, many-seeded. There is but one species, viz. P. lanuginosum, a native of China and Cochin China, in moist pla ces. PHLEBOTOMY, in surgery, the opening a vein with a proper sharp-edged and pointed instrument of steel, in order to let out a proper quantity of blood, either for the preservation or recovery of a person's health. PHLEUM, in botany, cat's-tail grass, a genus of the Triandria Digynia class and order. Natural order of Gramina, Gramineæ, or grasses. Essential character: calyx two-valved, sessile, linear, truncated, with a two-cusped tip; corolla inclosed. There are four species. PHOLAS, in natural history, a genus of the Vermes Testacea class and order. Generic character: animal an ascidia; shell bivalve, divaricate, with several lesser differently shaped accessory ones at the hinge: hinges recurved, united by a cartilage; in the inside beneath the hinge is an incurved tooth. There are twelve species; they all perforate clay, spongy stones, and wood, while in the younger state, and as they increase in size, enlarge their habitation within, and thus become imprisoned. They contain a phosphoreous liquor, which illuminates whatever it touches. PHLOGISTON, in chemistry, a term that seems to be almost wholly banished from our language. It was invented by Stahl, according to whom there is only one substance in nature capable of combustion; this he called phlogiston, and all those bodies which can be inflamed, contain more or less of it. Combustion, by his theory, is merely the separation of this substance. Those bodies which con tain none of it are incombustibles. All combustibles are composed of an incombustible body and phlogiston united; and during the combustion the phlogiston flies off, and the incombustible body is left behind. Thus, when sulphur is burnt, the substance that remains is sulphuric acid, an incombustible body. Sulphur therefore is said to be composed of sulphuric acid and phlogiston. This theory has long since given place to that established by Lavoisier. See COMBUSTION. It must, however, be observed, that Professor Davy, in his late discoveries, seems inclined to admit of an inflammable principle, which pervades the whole of nature. How far his future experiments may lead to the establishment of the Lavoisierian theory, or that of Stahl, time only can show. See POTASSIUM, &C. PHLOMIS, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class and order. Natural order of Verticillatæ or Labiata. Essential character: calyx angular; corolla upper lip incumbent, compressed, villose. There are twenty-two species. PHLOX, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Rotacex. Polemonia, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla salver-shaped; filaments unequal; stigma trifid; calyx prismatical; capsule three-celled, one-seeded. There are twelve species, natives of North America. PHOCA, the seal, in natural history, a genus of Mammalia, of the order Feræ. Generic character: fore teeth, in the upper jaw six, sharp, parallel, and the exterior ones larger; in the lower jaw four, distinct, parallel, equal, and rather blunt; tusks one on each side in both jaws, large and pointed, the upper remote from the fore teeth, the lower from the grinders; grinders five on each side above, and six below, tricuspidated. There are nineteen species, of which we shall notice the following: P. vitulina, or the common seal, or seacalf. These animals are found on the coasts of the polar regions, both to the north and south, often in extreme abundance, and are generally about five feet in length, closely covered with short hair. They swim with great vigour and rapidity, and subsist on various kinds of fish, which they are often observed to pursue within a short distance from the shore. They possess no inconsiderable sagacity, and may, without much difficulty, if taken young, be familiarized to their keepers, VOL. IX. and instructed in various gesticulations. They are supposed to attain great longevity. The female is particularly attentive to her young, and scarcely ever produces more than two at a birth, which, after being suckled a fortnight on the shore, where they are always born, are conducted to the water, and taught by their dam the means of defence and subsistence; and when they are fatigued by their excursions, are relieved by being taken on her back. They distinguish her voice, and attend at her call. The flesh of seals is sometimes eaten, but they are almost always destroyed for their oil and skins. The latter are manufactured into very valuable leather, and the former is serviceable in a vast variety of manufactures. A young seal will supply about eight gallons of oil. The smell of these animals, in any great number upon the shore, is highly disagreeable. In the month of October they are generally considered as most valuable, and as they abound in extended caverns on the coast, which are washed by the tide, the hunters proceed to these retreats about midnight, advancing with their boat as far into the recess as they are able, armed with spears and bludgeons, and furnished with torches to enable them to explore the cavern. They begin their operations by making the most violent noises, which soon rouse the seals from their slumbers, and awaken them to a sense of extreme danger, which they express by the most hideous yellings of terror. In their eagerness to escape they come down from all parts of the cavern, rushing in a promiscuous and turbulent mass along the avenue to the water. The men engaged in this perilous adventure oppose no impediment to this rushing crowd, but as this begins to diminish, apply their weapons with great activity and success, destroying vast numbers, and principally the young ones. The blow of the hunter is always levelled at the nose of the seal, where a slight stroke is almost instantly fatal. P. ursina, or the ursine seal, grows to the length of eight feet, and to the weight of a hundred pounds. These are found in vast abundance in the islands between America and Kamtschatka, from June till September, when they return to the Asiatic or American shores. They are extremely strong, surviving wounds and lacerations, which almost instantly destroy life in other animals, for days and even weeks. They may be observed, not merely by hundreds, but by thousands, on the' S s PHOE shore, each male surrounded by his fe- The bottle-nosed seal is found on the PHOENICOPTEROS, the flamingo, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order Graliæ. Generic character: bill naked, toothed, bending in the middle, as if broken; nostrils covered above with a thin plate and linear; tongue cartilaginous and pointed; neck, legs, and thighs exceedingly long; feet webbed, black-toe very small. The P. rubra, or common flamingo, the only species noticed by Latham, is nearly of the size of a PHO goose, and upwards of four feet long. PHOENIX, in astronomy, one of the constellations of the southern hemisphere, unknown to the ancients, and invisible in our northern parts. This constellation is said to consist of thirteen stars. PHOENIX, in botany, a genus of the Appendix Palmæ. Natural order of Palms. Essential character: calyx three parted; corolla three-petalled: male, stamina three; female, pistil one; drupe ovate. There are two species, viz. P. dactylifera, date palm-tree, and P. farinifera, natives of the Levant and Coromandel. PHONICS, the doctrine or science of See ACOUSTICS. This science sounds. has been considered as analogous to that of optics, and is divided into direct, refracted, and reflected; these have been called phonics, diaphonics, and cataphonics; but the terms are now well nigh obsolete. Phonics is a science that may be improved with regard to the object, the medium, and the organ. The object may be improved with respect to the production and propagation of sounds. With regard to the medium, phonics may be improved by its thinness and quiescency, and by the sonorous body being placed near a smooth wall, either plain or arched, more especially if it be formed after some peculiar curve, as from this arises the theory and prac tice of whispering places. Sound is much sweetened, if it is propagated in the vicinity of water; and on a plain, it will be conveyed much further than on uneven ground. PHORMIUM, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Coronaria. Asphodeli, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx none; corolla six-petalled, the three inner petals longer; capsule oblong, three-sided; seeds oblong, compressed. There is but one species, viz. P. tenax, New Zealand flax-plant. The inhabitants of New Zealand make a thread of the leaves, with which the women weave a variety of fine matting for clothing, and several other purposes. It is also manufactured in Norfolk Island for canvass and coarse linen cloths. PHOSPHATES, in chemistry, salts formed of the phosphoric acid, with earths, alkalies, &c. The alkaline phosphates are soluble and crystallizable; they are also fusible, forming a kind of glass, and facilitate the fusion of a number of other substances. They may be decomposed in the humid way, by sulphuric and some other acids; but in the dry way, these decompositions do not often happen. The phosphate of soda is much used in medicine: it is purely saline, without any bitterness, which renders it a good substitute for Epsom and Glauber's salts. As it melts easily, and promotes the fusion of the earths and metallic oxides, it is used in chemical operations as a flux. Phosphate of ammonia exists in the urine of carnivorous animals in considerable quantity, united with phosphate of soda, forming a triple salt, formerly denominated microcosmic, or fusible salt, in urine. END OF VOL. IX. |