Nacional, of Lima, "confirms the tidings which other explorers had given us of the great Ucayali, with respect to the facility with which it can be navigated in any season by larger vessels, as well as (what is now undoubtable) that the Ucayali is the true source of the Amazon and not the Marañon, as was formerly supposed."

On the 17th of December the Government issued a decree, declaring the navigation of Peruvian rivers free to flags of all nations. It was expected that this measure would be the means of attracting on a large scale foreign immigration, thus opening up the rich but unknown valleys of the Amazon. The Peruvian Government has several small steamers on the Peruvian head-waters of the Amazon, and Admiral Tucker, in command of the little flotilla, in 1868, had surveyed the different branches of the great artery. There exists in that region almost every description of mineral and agricultural wealth, but the difficulty of reaching the locality has always been an insuperable obstacle to immigration. When the railway from Lima to Jauja, which was surveyed in 1868, shall be completed, the intervening distance between the head-waters of steam navigation and the terminus of the railroad will only be about twenty leagues, and the highway thus constructed will form the connecting link in road which must be as important to Peru is the Pacifio Railroad is to the United States.

The yellow fever, in 1868, raged for about hree months with greater than usual severity. Among its victims were Don Toribio Pacheco, he Minister of Foreign Affairs, under the dicatorship of Prado, and Edmond de Lesseps, French chargé d'affaires.

In August, Peru was visited by a terrible arthquake, which destroyed several towns, nd caused the loss of several thousand lives. See EARTHQUAKES.)

PICKERING, OCTAVIUS, LL. D., a distinuished legal writer and law reporter, and an minent naturalist, born in Wyoming, Pa., eptember 2, 1791; died in Boston October 29, 368. He graduated from Harvard College in le class of 1810, and studied law in Boston, the office of his eldest brother, Mr. John ickering, was admitted to the bar in Suffolk ounty, March 6, 1816, and opened an office Boston. He assisted in reporting the deites and proceedings of the Massachusetts onvention for revising the constitution, held 1820. In 1822 Mr. Pickering became the tate Reporter, and continued so during the st eight years of the chief justiceship of aac Parker, and the first ten of that of idge Shaw, who succeeded to the office on he death of Judge Parker, in July, 1830. His ports of the decisions of the Supreme Court E Massachusetts during these eighteen years 822-1840) fill 24 octavo volumes. They are nown as Pickering's Reports," and are rerded as a necessary part of every good law VOL. VIII.-40

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library. He went abroad soon after giving up the office of reporter, and lived in England and on the Continent of Europe for seven years, returning home in 1849. He was much interested in science and natural history, and was for many years a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was one of those who, in December, 1814, organized "The New-England Society for the Promotion of Natural History," belonged to the committee who framed its constitution, and was chosen its treasurer. This society, a month later, changed its name to that of "The Linnean Society of New England," and it was on its ruins that the present thriving "Boston Society of Natural History was founded in 1830. Of this last, as well as its predecessor, Mr. Pickering was an active member.

PORTUGAL, a kingdom in Europe. King, Luis I., born October 31, 1838; succeeded his brother, King Pedro V., November 11, 1861. Heir-apparent, Carlos, born September 28, 1863. A new ministry was formed on the 4th of January, composed as follows: Count d'Avila, President, and Minister of the Interior and Foreign Affairs; Viscount Seabrea, Minister of Justice; Senhor José Dias Ferreira, Minister of Finance; General José Maria de Magalhaens, Minister of War; General José Rodriguez Caelho do Amaral, Minister of Marine; Councillor Sebastiano do Conto Castro Mascarenhas, Minister of Public Works. This ministry remained in office only until July 21st, when it resigned and was succeeded by another one, composed as follows: Presidency of the Council and War, Marquis de Sa da Bandeira; Interior, A. Alves Martins, Bishop of Vizeu; Justice and Worship, Anthony Pequite Seixas de Andrade; Finances, Charles Bento da Silva; Marine and Colonies, Joseph Maria Latino Coelho; Public Works, Commerce, and Industry, Sebastian Lopes Calheiros. Area, 36,510 square miles; population in 1863, 3,986,558; with the Azores and Madeira (in 1863), 4,350,216. The population of the Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia is given (in the Gotha Almanac for 1869) as 10,881,022, of whom 9,000,000 are set down for Angola, Ambriz, Benguela, Mosammedes.* The revenue in the budget for 1868-'69 was estimated at 16,910,137 milreis, and the expenditures at 22,831,941. Public debt, in June, 1867, 220,968,202 milreis; in 1866, 196,562,673 milreis. The strength of the army in the kingdom was in May, 1868, 1,567 officers, and 23,092 soldiers; in the colonies, 1st line, 9,453; 2d line, 21,411. The fleet, in 1867, consisted of 26 armed, and 19 nonarmed vessels; total 45 vessels, with 355 guns. The imports of Portugal, in 1866, amounted to 26,530,000 milreis; the exports to 19,190,000

*For a list of Portuguese colonies in Asia and Africa, see ANNUAL AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA for 1866. The total

population of the colonies was then estimated at 3,811,818. The large difference proceeds solely from the discrepant statements concerning Angola, for which then 2,000,000 and now 9,000,000 are claimed.

postage, nor does it pay postmasters or contractors: this is the work of the Treasury. No moneys are to be paid into the department, nor are any to be paid out directly by it. When postmasters remit the proceeds of postage to the department without due authority from the Postmaster-General, it is returned at the risk of the person sending it. All the financial operations connected with the mails are transacted by the Treasury Department. For the purpose of paying over the funds due, offices are classed as collection, draft, or deposit offices. Collection offices, which class includes nearly all the offices of the country, except those that are the termini of routes, pay over the net proceeds of their office quarterly to the contractor who brings their mail. Draft offices are ordered to retain their funds in hand to meet drafts; and deposit offices are required to deposit, quarterly or oftener, their funds with some depositary. No allowance is made for deficiency in weight of coin or for counterfeit currency.

The forging, counterfeiting, or using counterfeit stamps is a felony, subjecting the offender to a penalty of confinement at hard labor for not less than two nor more than ten years.

Postmasters.-Postmasters of offices, where the salaries exceed $1,000, are appointed and removed by the President, by and with the consent of the Senate. The commission, which runs for four years, issues from the State Department, and is signed by the President, and countersigned by the Secretary of State; he is legally known as "Deputy Postmaster." His bond is renewed every four years. At all offices, where the salary does not exceed $1,000, the Postmaster-General has the sole power of appointment and removal. Minors, married women, and all other persons, who cannot legally execute an official bond and take the required oath, are incapable of holding the office of postmaster. No one can be postmaster, who does not reside in the city or town wherein the office is situated, or within the delivery of the office; and all the assistants or clerks must be at least sixteen years old. Nor is a postmaster permitted to transfer the charge of his office, and the performance of its duties, to another. He must permit no person, except his sworn assistants, clerks, and lettercarriers, to have access to letters, papers, or whatever constitutes a part of the mail, or to the mail locks or keys: nor should the mails be opened or made up within the reach of persons not authorized to handle them. In case of death, the responsibilities of the sureties continue till a successor is qualified; and the sureties can perform the duties of the office till that event. Postmasters, their clerks, postriders, and drivers of mail stages, are exempt from militia duties and from serving on juries.

The salaries of postmasters are fixed once in two years, based on the amount of stamps cancelled in the two previous quarters. They

are allowed sixty per cent. on the first $100 of letter-postage, fifty per cent. on the next $300, forty per cent. on the next $2,000, and fifteen per cent. on all over $2,000. They are also allowed in the salary all emoluments, such as box-rents, and fifty per cent. on newspa per-postage; but the salary can never exceed $4,000. They are allowed no perquisites, the salary equalling the compensation formerly received from commissions and box-rents. The postmaster of New York has a salary of $6,000: all other offices are divided into five classes. Postmasters of the first class receive from $3,000 to $1,000 annual salary; postmas ters of the second class receive from $2,000 to $3,000; those of the third class, from $1.00 up to $2,000; those of the fourth class, from $100 up to $1,000; and those of the fifth class receive less than $100. Postmasters of the first and second class are allowed rent, fiel light, and clerk hire, if their commissions on cancelled stamps will allow it. In our larger cities Government usually erects an edifice, of which the lower stories are used for post-offices, and the higher for courts or internal revenue offices.

Franking and Postage.-The law requires the prepayment by stamps of postage on al letters, excepting those written to and by the President, Vice-President, Members of Con gress, or (on official business) to and by the chiefs of the executive departments, the Less of bureaus, and chief clerks, and others invested with the franking privilege. This privilege formerly belonging to postmasters, has be withdrawn, except on matter sent on official business. The right to send or receive ma matter free is either a personal privilege or a trust for the maintenance of official correspondence. The franking privilege cannot be delegated to another, but travels with the person possessing it, and can be exercised in but one place at the same time. Counterfer ing a frank subjects the offender to a fine of $500. One-half the penalties, for violation of the franking privilege, goes to the prosecut one-half to the United States. Government makes an annual allowance to the department of $700,000, in consideration of the free mst ter it carries; but the actual cost, probably exceeds $3,000,000. All mailable matter divided into three classes; 1, letters, or corre spondence wholly or partly in writing: 2 regular or printed matter, issued at statel periods; 3, miscellaneous matter, such as par phlets, books, proof-sheets, and all other matter which is, or hereafter may be, by law de clared mailable. No packet can be received the mail weighing over four pounds. Packages containing liquids, poisons, explosive chenicals, or other matter, calculated to endange the safety of the mails, must be excluded. No envelope or packet is allowed to contain letters addressed to different persons, and such envelope or packet must be sent at once to the dead-letter office. Letters or packages al

dressed to fictitious persons or firms must be forwarded each month to the dead-letter office.

Postage must be prepaid on all mail matter, except, 1, matter lawfully franked; 2, foreign letters; 3, printed matter, sent to regular subscribers; and 4, letters sent by soldiers, sailors, and marines. The single rate of postage is three cents per half ounce, with an additional rate of three cents for each additional half ounce or fraction of a half ounce. Prepaid and free letters are forwarded, at the request of the party addressed, from one post-office to another without additional charge. Letters indorsed with a request for return to the writers are sent back, when uncalled for, without charge. All drop letters must be prepaid at two cents per half ounce, where the carrier delivery is established; at other offices, one

cent.

The postage on newspapers published every day of the week, prepaid quarterly in advance, is thirty-five cents per quarter; when published six times a week, thirty cents; tri-weekly, fifteen cents; weekly, five cents. Weekly papers to subscribers living within the county of publication are free, even when the subscriber takes the mail matter from an office in an adjoining county. The exchange of newspapers and periodicals is free. Religious, educational, and agricultural papers of small size, issued less frequently than once a week, may be sent in packages to one address for one cent for each four ounces. And newsdealers may send to actual subscribers papers and periodicals prepaid at quarterly rates, and may receive them from publishers at subscriber's rates. Books cost four cents per four ounces. Unsealed circulars, not exceeding three to one address, are two cents; miscellaneous matter, two cents per four ounces. All transient matter must be prepaid by stamps; if unpaid, double postage must be collected on delivery. To send writing on printed matter subjects the entire package to letter postage.

The rates of postage have constantly varied in this country, always tending downward. Franklin was the first Postmaster-General who allowed newspapers of his own city, other than his own, to travel post; and he introduced the system of free exchange between newspapers. He materially lowered the existing rates of postage, fixing the Oceanic rate at four pence, whatever the distance; on land, 60 miles, four pence; 100 miles, six pence; 200 miles, eight pence; and every additional hundred miles, two pence. In 1818, Congress fixed the rates at 61, 10, 123, 18 and 25 cents per single letter, according to distance. In 1845, the half-ounce scale was adopted for single letters, and the rates were established at five and ten cents, against the earnest opposition of Hon. C. A. Wickliffe, then Postmaster-General. Six years later, a farther reduction was made, and one cent was charged for drop letters, prepaid; three cents for sin

gle letters, not travelling over 3,000 miles; when not prepaid, five cents; when sent over 3,000 miles, double these rates. In 1855, a law was passed making drop letters one cent; single letters under 3,000 miles, three cents; over that distance, ten cents, and prepayment compulsory. In July, 1856, all postage was made payable in stamps. The history of this and of all countries proves that there is no instance on record where a reduction of rates has been followed by a permanent reduction of revenue; and that all improvement and facilities bring a corresponding increase of postage. In England, the penny postage enlarged the annual number of letters from eighty-seven and a half millions to seven hundred and seventy-five millions; and the net income of the department, after the payment of all expenses and a number of heavy subsidies to steam lines, has risen from $1,735,000 in 1857 to $7,106,000 in 1867; a gain of over four hundred per cent. within ten years..

Transportation of the Mails.-All transportation is by contract, and no Member of Congress, postmaster, clerk in a post-office, or in the Post-office Department, can be a contractor or concerned in a contract for carrying the mail. The lettings must be advertised in not more than five newspapers in the State where the service is to be performed, for at least twelve weeks before the contract is made. And, by the terms of the contract, the Postmaster-General may discontinue or curtail the service in whole or in part, allowing to the contractor one month's extra pay on the amount of service discontinued, and a pro rata compensation for the amount of service retained.

All the States and Territories are divided into four mail contract sections. A letting of one of these occurs each spring, the service to commence the first of July following. The sections and their current contract terms are as follows:

1. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York; these contracts expire June 30, 1869.

2. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, and Ohio; current term to end June 30, 1872.

3. West Virginia, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Indian Territory; June 30, 1871.

4. Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Nevada; June 30, 1870.

There are 8,226 mail routes in these States, of an aggregate length of 216,928 miles, let to 6,891 contractors. Of these, railroads carry the mails 36,018 miles at a cost of about twelve cents per mile; steamboats, 19,647 miles at a little over seventeen cents per mile; and stage