Theodoret, also, who lived only a few years later than Chrysostom, repeats substantially the same sentiments. In relation to the salutation of Paul to the Philippians, c. 1: 1, he says, "the apostle addresses himself to the priesthood and to the saints who are under them, in which term he includes all who had received baptism. But he calls the presbyters bishops; for they had, at that time the same names, as we learn from the history of the Acts of the Apostles." The writer then proceeds to remark upon the presbyters of Ephesus, Acts 20: 17, who in verse 28 are called bishops. From this he goes on to speak of the instructions given to Titus, who was left in Crete, to ordain presbyters in every city; but on being directed what persons to choose, he is told that "a bishop must be blameless," &c. He then adverts to the fact, that the apostle speaks only of the two orders of bishops and deacons, without any mention of presbyters; and of the impossibility of supposing that several bishops could have borne rule in the same city. After this, he proceeds to say; 'so that it is evident that he denominates the presbyters bishops."141 This sentiment he repeats in remarking

141 Πᾶσι τὰ κατ' αὐτὸν ἐπιστέλλει, τοῖς δὲ τῆς ἱερωσύνης ήξιω μένοις καὶ τοῖς ἀπὸ τούτων ποιμαινομένοις. ἁγίους γὰρ τοὺς τοῦ βαπτίσματος ἀξιωθέντας ὠνόμασεν, ἐπισκόπους δὲ τοὺς πρεσ βυτέρους καλεῖ, ἀμφότερα γὰρ εἶχον κατ ̓ ἔκεῖνον τὸν καιρὸν τὰ ὀνόματα. Καὶ τοῦτο ἡμᾶς καὶ ἡ τῶν Πράξεων ἱστορία διδάσκει. Εἰρηκὼς γὰρ ὁ μακάριος Λουκᾶς, ὡς εἰς τὴν Μίλητον τοὺς Εφεσίων μετεμέμψατο πρεσβυτέρους ὁ θεῖος ἀπόστολος, λέγει καὶ τὰ πρὸς αὐτοὺς εἰρημένα· προσέχετε γάρ φησιν ἑαυτοῖς καὶ παντὶ ποιμνίῳ, ἐν ᾧ ὑμᾶς ἔθετο τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον ἐπισκόπους, ποιμαίνειν τὴν ἐκκλησίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ· καὶ τοὺς αὐτοὺς καὶ πρεσβυτέρους καὶ ἐπισκόπους ὠνόμασεν. Οὕτω καὶ ἐν τῇ πρὸς τὸν μακάριον Τίτον ἐπιστολῇ· διὰ τοῦτο κατέλιπόν σε ἐν Κρήτῃ, ἵνα καταστήσῃς κατὰ πόλιν πρεσβυτέρους, ὡς ἐγώ σοι διεταξάμην. Καὶ εἰπὸν ὁποίους εἶναι χρὴ τοὺς χειροτονουμέ νους ἐπήγαγε· δεῖ γὰρ τὸν ἐπίσκοπον ἀνέγκλητον εἶναι, ὡς Θεοῦ δικόνομον. Καὶ ἐνταῦθα δὲ δῆλον τοῦτο πεποίηκε· τοῖς

upon Phil. 2: 25; where he says, that “those who, in the beginning of the epistle, are called bishops, evidently belonged to the grade of the presbytery." The passage is given entire in the margin.143 Again, 1 Tim. 3: 1, he takes occasion to say, that the apostle "calls the presbyter a bishop, as we have had occasion to show in our commentary on the epistle to the Philippians." 143

The following commentary of the Greek scholiast, of a later date, shows that these views were still retained in the Eastern church. "Inasmuch as the custom of the New Testament especially, of calling bishops presbyters, and presbyters bishops, seems to be silently neglected by many, it may be shown from Acts 20: 17; and from the epistle to Titus ; and again, from that to the Philippians ; and, yet again, from the first epistle to Timothy. From the Acts the argument is as follows:-'From Miletus, Paul sent to Ephesus, and called the presbyters of the church.' He called them not bishops; but farther on, he says, 'Over which the Holy Ghost hath made you bishops to feed the church. From the epistle to Titus, Having established presbyters throughout the churches as I commanded you.'From the epistle to the Philippians, To those that are in Philippi with the bishop and deacons.' From the epistle γὰρ ἐπισκόποις τοὺς διακόνους συνέζευξε, τῶν πρεσβυτέρων οὐ ποιησάμενος μνήμην· ἄλλως τε οὐδὲ οἷόν τε ἦν πολλοὺς ἐπιστ κόπους μίαν πόλιν ποιμαίνειν· ὡς εἶναι δῆλον ὅτι τοὺς μὲν πρεσβυτέρους ἐπισκόπους ὠνόμασε.—Theodoret, Ep. ad Phil., p. 445, seq. Tom. 3, ed. Halens.

142 Πολλὰ καὶ τούτου (Epaphroditus) κατορθώματα διεξῆλθεν (Paulus), οὐκ ἀδελφὸν μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ συνεργὸν καὶ συστρα τιώτην ἀποκαλέσας. Απόστολον δὲ αὐτὸν κέκληκεν αὐτῶν ὡς τὴν ἐπιμέλειαν αὐτῶν ἐμπεπιστευμένον· ὡς εἶναι δῆλον ὅτι ὑπὸ τοῦτον ἐτέλουν οἱ ἐν τῷ προοιμίῳ κληθέντες ἐπίσκοποι, τοῦ πρεσβυτερίου δηλονότι τὴν τάξιν πληροῦντες. — Ibid., Ep. ad Tim., p. 459, Tom. 3.

143 Επίσκοπον δὲ ἐνταῦθα τὸν πρεσβύτερον λέγει, ὡς τὴν πρὸς Φιλιππησίους ἐπιστολὴν ἑρμηνεύοντες ἀπεδείξαμεν — Ibid., p. 652.

to Timothy the same may be inferred by analogy, when he says, 'If a man desire the office of a bishop he desireth a good work;' A bishop must be blameless,' &c."144

This scholiast has but hinted at the argument from these passages, to which he refers, but he has said enough to show that the doctrine of the ministerial parity of bishops and presbyters was still maintained during the middle ages, in the Eastern church, and justly defended on the authority of the Scriptures.

Elias, archbishop of Crete, A. D. 787, asserts the identity of bishops and presbyters; and, in commenting upon Gregory Nazianzen, remarks, that this bishop, in the fifth century, was accustomed to denominate presbyters, bishops, antistites, making no distinction between them;-a circumstance which this scholiast has noticed in many passages from Gregory.145

It is truly remarkable how long, and how distinctly, these views of the original sameness of bishops and presbyters were retained on the church. Isidorus Hispalensis, bishop of Seville in Spain, in the seventh century, and

144 Επειδὴ λανθάνει τοὺς πολλοὺς ἡ συνήθεια, μάλιστα τῆς καινῆς διαθήκης, τοὺς ἐπισκόπους πρεσβυτέρους ὀνομάζουσα καὶ τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους ἐπισκόπους, σημειωτέον τοῦτο ἐντεῦθεν καὶ ἐκ τῆς πρὸς Τίτον ἐπιστολῆς, ἔτι δὲ καὶ πρὸς Φιλιππησίους καὶ ἐκ τῆς πρὸς Τιμόθεον πρώτης. Εκ μὲν οὖν τῶν Πράξεων ἐντεῦθεν ἐστὶ πεισθῆναι περὶ τούτου, γέγραπται γὰρ οὕτως· ̓Εκ δὲ τῆς Μιλήτου πέμψας εἰς Εφεσον μετεκαλέσατο τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους τῆς ἐκκλησίας. Καὶ οὐκ εἴρηκε τοὺς ἐπισκό πους, εἶτα ἐπιφέρει· ἐν ᾧ ὑμᾶς τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον ἔθετο ἐπιστ κόπους, ποιμαίνειν τὴν ἐκκλησίαν. Εκ δὲ τῆς πρὸς Τίτον ἐπιστολῆς· Καταστήσεις κατὰ πόλιν πρεσβυτέρους, ὡς ἐγώ σοι διεταξάμεν. Εκ δὲ τῆς πρὸς Φιλιππησίους· Τοῖς οἶσιν ἐν Φιλίπποις συνεπισκόποις καὶ διακόνοις. Οἶμαι δὲ, ὅτι ἐκ τῆς προτέρας πρὸς Τιμόθεον ἀναλογισάμενος τοῦτο ἐκλαβεῖν· εἴ τις γάρ, φησι, τῆς ἐπισκοπῆς ὀρέγεται, καλοῦ ἔργου ἐπιθυμεῖ, δεῖ οὖν τὸν ἐπίσκοπον ἀνεπίληπτον εἶναι.—Cited by Rothe from Salmasius, Episcop. et Presb., p. 13.

145 Greg. Naz., Tom. 2, p. 830. Ed. Colon. 1590. Also Ed. Basil. 1571, pp. 262, 264.

one of the most learned men of that age, copies with approbation the authority of Jerome given above, as an expression of his own sentiments. He may accordingly be regarded as expressing the sentiments of the Western church at this time.

The views of the church at Alexandria, in the tenth century, have already been expressed in the extract from Eutychius given above.

Bernaldus Constantiensis, about A. D. 1088, a learned monk, and a zealous defender of Gregory VII, after citing Jerome, continues: "Inasmuch, therefore, as bishops and presbyters were anciently the same, without doubt they had power to loose and to bind, and to do other acts which are now the special prerogatives of the bishop. But after the presbyters began to be restricted by Episcopal preeminence, what was formerly lawful for them became unlawful. Ecclesiastical authority having delegated such prerogatives to the prelates alone."146

Even pope Urban II, 1091, says,-" We regard deacons and presbyters as belonging to the sacred order, since these are the only orders which the primitive church is said to have had. For these only have we apostolical authority." 147

Gratian again, a benedictine, eminent for his learning and talents, a century later, adopts all the passages cited above from Jerome, ad Tit. 1.148

Nicholas Tudeschus, archbishop of Panorma, about A.

146 Quum igitur presbyteri et episcopi untiquitus, idem fuisse legantur etiam eandem ligandi atque solvendi potestatem, et alia nunc episcopis specialia, habuisse non dubitantur. Postquam antem presbyteri ab episcopali excellentia cohibiti sunt, coepit eis non licere quod licuit, videlicit quod ecclesiastica auctoritas solis pontificibus exequendum delegavit.— De Presbyterorum officio tract, in Monmentorum res Allemannorum illustrant. S. Blas, 1792, 4to. Tom. 2, 384 seq.

Hos

147 Sacros autem ordines ducimus diaconatum et presbyteratum. siquidem solos primitiva legitur ecclesia habuisse; super his solum preceptum habemus apostoli.-Conc. Benerent, an. 1090, can. 1.

148 (Dist. XCV., c. 5.) Epist. ad Evangel., (Dist. XCIII., c. 24.) and Isidori Hist., (Dist. XXI., c. 1)

D. 1428, says: "Formerly presbyters governed the church in common, and ordained the clergy.149

It is perhaps still more remarkable that even the papal canonist, Jo. Paul Launcelot, A. D. 1570, introduces the passage of Jerome without any attempt to refute it.150

Thus through all the middle ages during the proudest ascendency of prelatical power, the doctrine of the original equality of bishops and presbyters, remained an acknowledged sentiment in the Roman Catholic church, attested by a succession of the most learned of her clergy.

Gieseler remarks, That the distinction between the divine and the ecclesiastical appointment, institutio, was of less importance in the middle ages than in the modern catholic church, and this view of the original identity of bishops and presbyters, was of no practical importance. It was not till after the Reformation that it was attacked. Michael de Medina, about A. D. 1570, does not hesitate to assert that those fathers were essentially heretics; but adds, that out of respect for these fathers, this heresy in them is not to be condemned. Bellarmine declares this a Thenceforth all Catholics,

' very inconsiderate sentiment.' as well as English Episcopalians, maintain an original difference between bishop and presbyter."151

149 Super prima parte Primi, cap. 5, ed. Lugdun, 1543, fol. 1126. Olim presbyteri in commune regebant ecclesiam et ordinabant sacerdotes. 150 Institutt. juris Canon., Lib. 1, Tit. 21, § 3.

151 Comp. especially Petavii de ecclesiastica hierarchia Lib. 5, and dissertatt. theologic. Lib. 1, in his theolog. dogmat. Tom. 4, p. 164. On the other side, Walonis Messalini (Claud. Salmasii) diss. de episcopis et presbyteris. Lugd. Bat. 1641, 8vo. Dav. Blondelli apologia pro sententia Hieronymi de episcopis et presbyteris. Amstelod. 1616, 4to. Against these Henr. Hammondus dissertatt. IV., quibus episcopatus jura ex sacra scriptura et prima antiquitate adstruunter. Lond. 1651. The controversy was long continued. On the side of the Episcopalians, Jo. Pearson, Guil. Beveridge, Henr. Dodwell, Jos. Bingham, Jac. Usserius. On that of the Presbyterians, Jo. Dallaeus, Camp. Vitringa; also the Lutherans, Joach. Hildebrand, Just. Henn. Boehmer, Jo. Franc, Buddeus, Christ. Math. Pfaff, etc., comp. Jo. Phil. Gabler de episcopis primae ecclesiae Christ. eorumque origine diss. Jenae, 1805, 4to.