same as that followed at the present day; that is, comparing a line measured on the earth's surface with the corresponding arc of the heavens. He observed that at Syene, in Upper Egypt, on the day of the summer solstice, the sun was exactly vertical, while at Alexandria, at the same season of the year, its distance from the zenith was 7deg 12m, or one-fiftieth of the circumference of a circle. Assuming that these places were on the same meridian, and reckoning their distance apart as 5,000 stadia (625 miles) he inferred the circumference of the earth to be 31,250 miles. A similar measurement was made by the astronomer Posidonius about 50 B, C., using a star instead of the sun, and the Arab astronomers made a like a computation about 814 A. D., under direction of that illustrious patron of learning, the Caliph Almamoun. The source of error in these computatione seems to have been the very imperfect methods then known for measuring the earth's surface, as the mathematical principle is correct. But no further computation seems to have been made until the year 1500, when Fernel, a Frenchman, measured a degree on the meridian by counting the number of revolutions made by the wheel of his carriage as he traveled. The next geodesist was a Hollander, Willebrod Snell, who made a great advance in surveying by substituting a chain of triangles for actual linear measurement. His observations were published at Leyden in 1617. In 1637 an Englishman, Richard Norwood, measured a degree on the road from London to York with a chain. The first application of the telescope to meridian measurement was made by Pickard, ■ Frenchman, in 1669, who estimated a degree at a little more than sixty-nine miles. From this the circumference of the earth was deduced as nearly 25,000 miles, a result which has since been accepted as approximately correct. Newson, however, a few years after the publication of Pickard's estimates, showed that as the figure of the earth was not an exact sphére, its circumference from north to south must exceed that taken on the equator. Geodetic measurements of the degrees of latitude between the equator and the poles have shown this to be the case.

MADRID-FORESTS OF SPAIN.

SEWARD, Neb.

On the banks of what river does Madrid. the capital ot spain, stand? Is not the channel of this river now dry, and if so what has caused it? Was Spain ever a timbered country, and what parts of the country have been or are now covered with forests?

W. M. ORR. Answer,-Madrid is situated on the left bank of the river Manzanares, a branch of the river Tagus. This is a small stream, and though its channel is filled with a deep and rushing torrent during the rainy months, it is very low during the hot and dry season. This has been the case with the river always; there has been no deflection of the river-bed to cause it. The surface of the adjoining district is mountainous, and the Manzanares and other branches of the Tagus are all fed by mountain torrents, which are filled to overflowing during part of the year, and quite dry during another part. On the whole, Spain has less timbered country than any other of the latga states of Europe, but this is because no

effort has been made to replace the forests de stroyed for use. There is much less forest land now in the country than formerly, but large forests, especially of evergreen, oaks, and cork trees, are still found in Asturias, the Pyrenees the Sierra Morena, and the Sierra Nevada Trees cultivated for their fruits abound in many parts of the country, the date palm, the fig tree, orange, pomegranate trees, etc., and the mulberry are also much cultivated.

FIFTIETH ILLINOIS INFANTRY. YANETON, D.T. Please give a sketch of the Fiftieth Illinois Infantry. H.Lon Answer. The Fiftieth Infantry was organized at Quincy, Ill., and was mustered in Aug. 20, 1861. It was sent to Hannibal, Mo., Oct. 9, and took part in the Missouri campaign until Jan. 27, 1862, when it reported to General Grant at Cairo, Ill. It was present at the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, and took an honorable part in the battle of Shiloh. It was present at the battle of Corinth, Oct. 4 was engaged in occasional skirmishing through the winter and following spring, and April 28, 1863, had a sharp little engagement with the enemy at Courtland, Miss. It was on scouting duty from Nov. 17, 1868, to Jan. 16, 1864, at which latter date the men re-enlisted for three years or during the war, and went home for veteran furlough. “The regiment took part in the Atlanta campaign, and was with Sherman in his March to the Sea. It took part in the review at Washington May 24 1865, and was mustered out at Louisville July 18 following.

PLANTS AND CARBONIC ACID.

GRAND FORKS, D. T. It is said that house plants should not be kept in bed-rooms. Why is this? Do they have any injur ous effect upon the atmosphere? JOHN WIN. Answer. The general effect of vegetation is to purify the air. The leaves of plants and trees inhale carbonic acid gas, the poisonous element of the atmosphere thrown out by animals in breathing, and give out oxygen, the life-giving element, without which animal life can not exist. The constant action of the leaves of plants is one of the natural agencies by which the proportion of carbonic acid in the air is always kept at a minimum. This element, carbonic acid, without which plant life could not exist, is poisonous to animal life; not as is usually supposed, because it is in itself a poison, but because when more than a certain proportion of it is in the air respiration becomes impossible. It is not a poison to the stomach or blood but is deadly to the lungs. Yet though it is true that the general influence of vegetation is to render the air pure, it is also true that house plants should never be kept in sleeping-rooms, nor indeed in any rooms generally occupied, if the matter of ventilation is not carefully attended to in them. Every green leaf on tree or plant sucks in during the sunshine carbonic acid from the air and breathes out oxygen, but this is only in the day-time. Dar ing the night this action ceases, and the reverse process oes on, that is taking in oxygen and giving out carbonic acid. But the young shoote

Rome. This standard was 'disused under the Bourbons, but was restored by a decree of Louis Napoleon in 1852 The emblem used in the United States is the large bald-headed eagle. It was in favor here, no doubt, because of its connection with the Romans, those early champlons of civil liberty. The design of an eagle was suggested for the National flag, but was abandoned for the simpler design of the stars and stripes. It has often been used on regimental flags. The eagle was first used on American coin in 1788, on cents and half-cents issued from the Massachusetts mint. It was adopted in the plan of a National coinage, as a design upon all gold coins and on the silver dollar, half-dollar, and quarter-dollar.

POISONOUS AIR IN WELLS. BAZAINE, Kan. › What is the cause of the poisonous air, called choke damp, in wells, and what will prevent it?

T. W. COLE!". Answer. The poisonous air often found in wells, which frequently causes immediate suffo cation to persons descending into them, is car bonic acid gas. It accumulates in the bottom of wells simply because it is much heavier than at mospheric air, and settles into them by the force of its own weight. It is largely absorbed by water, and thus rendered harmless, and for this reason most frequently accumulates in old wells where there is little or no water. It is always advisable when about to descend into a well which has not been used for some time, or one in which the water has become quite low, to Jet down a burning candle first. If the air in the well is heavily charged with carbonic acid the light will go out, and as a rule it may be said that when there is not enough oxygen in the air to sustain the combustion of a candle-wick this air can not be safely breathed by human lungs. When the air of wells is too impure to enter it may become purified by agi, tating so as to drive part of the carbonic acid gas out of the well and drawing in atmospheric air to dilute the remainder. This is most frequently done by exploding a charge of gunpowder in the well. A simpler means of 'purifying the air is by lowering a vessel containing ignited charcoal nearly to the bottom. Red-hot coals have the property of absorbing many times their bulk of this gas, and when cooled they may be drawn up, ignited, and lowered again. A well in which a candle would not burn within twenty-six feet of the bottom has been purified by this plan in a few hours. Turning a stream of water into the well will also soon absorb the injurious gas; or, if the well can be ventilated, this gas can be soon removed by this means.

THE DARDANELLES. FAIRVIEW, IL Describe the Dardanelles, and tell whether the name applies to the strait or its shores. Is it true that the Turkish government will not allow any vessel of war to enter this strait either in time of war or peace?

N.T. WILSON,

Answer.-Properly the name belongs to the fortification on the shores of the strait, though it is by association also given to the channel of water between them, which was formerly known as the Hellespont. The Dardanelles are four castles

forts situated on opposite shores of the pas

sage which joins the Sea of Marmora with the waters of the Agean Sea. The name is probably derived from the ancient city of Dardanus, on the eastern shore. These ports are intended to command the access to Constantinople. The two castles at the entrance of the strait from the side of the Exean Archipelago were built by Moham med IV. in 1659, and are still in excellent repair. The channel is there four and threequarters miles wide, and its width inter feres with the efficiency of these posts as a means of defense. The other two castles, which are of much older construction, and though once very solidly built, now show signs of decay, command the strait at a point where it is only 800 yards across, and can be closed by chains against the entrance of vessels. All the forts are defended by guns of the largest caliber and most modern construction, and on the European aidé there are additional coast batteries of great strength. The Turkish government for many years maintained that no foreign vessel of war should at any time, either in a period of war or peace, be allowed to pass the Dardanelles forts. Great Britain recognized this principle in 1809. and hence in 1832-3 the British and French fleets were not permitted to enter the Straits, though a Russian fleet from the Black Sea was anchored in the Bosphorus. In 1841 the great powers of Europe fully recognized this claim on the part of Turkey, and in the treaty of Paris, in 1856 it was reaffirmed. But in November, 1858, the United States frigate Wabash passed the Dardanelles, and anchored at Constantinople, the commanding officer maintaining that the United States, being no party to the treaty of Paris, was not bound by the stipulations. Without ao knowledging explicitly the correctness of this position, the Turkish government received the Wabash in a friendly manner. In 1876 this clause of the treaty of Paris was abrogated, and there is no longer any restriction on the navigation of this strait in peaceful times.#la.

JOHN P. NEWMAN, D. D. PENG MẪ BUTEVEN, Iowa. « spiritual adviser. Would like a sketch of Dr. Newman, General Grant's 10.18. fago - G. A. FABRICK. Answer-John P. Newman was born in New York City in 1826. He was the son of well-todo parents, and received a good general education prior to his entering upon a theological course at Cazenovia Seminary, New York, under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. After his ordination he became distinguished as a preacher, and having delivered a brilliant sermon at the Hanson Place Church, Brooklyn, was immediately engaged as pastor of one of the churches in that city. About 1867 he became pastor of the Metropolitan Methodist Episcopal Church at Washington, and it was while at the National capital that he became the intimate friend of General Grant From 1870 to 1874 Dr. Newman was chaplain of the Senate, and after he was retired from this position General Grant made him inspector of consulates. In that position he spent some time abroad, and extended his travels to Palestine. On his return he was placed on the superannuated list at his own request, out in 1872 accepted the pastorate

of the Madison Avenue Church, New York, with a salary of $10,000 per annum. On account of a dificulty with the officers of the church he resigned this pastorate in 1884. Dr. Newman is the author of two works. "From Dan to Beeraheba" and "The Thrones and Palaces of Babylen and Nineveh," presenting his observations while on his extended tour in oriental countries.

- LIGHTNING-FATAL SHIPWRECKS.

MARINE, II. 1. What is the cause of death by lightning? 2. Men tion some of the shipwrecks attended with the great est loss of life. H.ENOS.

Answer.-1. The cause of death by Hghtning is the sudden absorption of the electric current. When a thunder cloud which is highly charged with positive electricity hangs over any place the earth beneath it becomes abnormally negative, and the body of any animal standing under the cloud will partake of this influence. If in this condition a discharge takes place from the cloud,

to

the restoration of the equilibrium will be sudden and violent-or, in the language of hypothesis, the electric fluid will rush up into the body from the earth with such force as produce death. "And this is what is meant by being "struck by lightning." 2. No very complete statistics of shipwrecks have been compiled. Ainong those attended with unusual loss of life were the sinking of the Royal George off Spithead, Aug. 29, 1782, in which over 600 perished: the burning of the Queen Charlotte, off Leghorn, March 17, 1800, 673 lost; the stranding of the three vessels, the St. George, Defence, and Hero, off the coast of Jutland, Deo. 24, 1811, with a leus of 2,000 persons; and the sinking of the steamer Princess Alice in the Thames, Sept. 3. 1878, over 650 drowned. ^

- Answer.—The tower at Bingen is situated on an island in the Rhine, and is supposed to have been erected during the middle ages by some of the robber-knights that then infested Germany. The ruins have been covered with stucco and converted into a watch-tower. Its name is popularly derived from the legend of the cruel Archbishop Hatto of Mayence. According to the story, as told in the well-known ballad of Southey, the crops of the district had failed one year, and all the poor people were starving. But the rich bishop had granaries filled to overflowing, which he was holding in order to profit by the advanced price of the grain. The wretched people besought the bishop to give them food from his abundant stores. To rid himself of their importunities, the bishop appointed a day for all the poor to come to his barn and receive a portion of grain. When they had all gathered in the building, the cruel prelate ordered his servants to fasten the doors and set fire to it, thus burning the wretched beings alive. The next day a whole army of rats were seen coming toward the bishop's palace. He fled for safety to this tower on the Rhine, but the rats pursued him, swimming the river and scaling the walls of the tower; and, making their way into the room where the terrified

bishop was trying to conceal himself, they <de> voured him alive. This was in the year 970. different story concerning the mouse-tower, how ever, is given in Murray's Hand-book of Gere many.' This asserts that the tower was not built until the thirteenth century, more than 200 years after the death of Bishop Hatto. "It was intended, with the opposite castle of Ehrenfels, erected at about the same time, as a watch-tower and toll-house for collecting duties upon all goods which passed the spot. The word maus is probably an older form of mauth, meaning duty or toll, and this name, together with the very unpopular object for which the tower was erected, perhaps gave rise to the dolorous story of Bishop Hatto and the rats."

› HORATIUS COCLES-ATALANTA DAVID CITY, Nob. 1. Is the story of "Horatius at the bridge" true? Give the story of Atalanta. A READER Answer.-1, Horatius Cocles is a character of

boar

the legendary period of Roman history. The story accepted as containing as much truth as any of his defense of the bridge, however, is usually records preserved by tradition of that time. 2. Atalanta was a charactor of ancient mythology. She was the daughter of King Jasus of Arcadia Her father, having besought the gods for a son, was displeased at her birth, and exposed the infant to die on Mount Parthenius. There she was nursed by a she-bear and grew up to womanhood possessing remarkable vigor and beauty, and being the most swift-footed of mortals. She vanquished the centaurs who sought to capture her, participated in the Calydonian hunt, and took part in the Pelian games. Her father now consented to be reconciled to her and receive her into his household; but when he urged her to choose a husband she insisted that every suitor who aspired to win her should first contend with her in running. If he could outstrip her in the race he was to receive her hand; if she first reached the goal he was to be put to death. One of her lovers, Milanion, contrived to overcome her by artifice. He provided himself with three golden apples and as he ran he dropped them one by one, and, as Atalanta delayed to pick them up, he passed her and won the race.

WOMEN IN THE WAR.

SIDNEY, Lows."

In an article in Our Curiosity Shop, this year, on the part taken by women in the war, mention was made of the volunteer refreshment saloons sustained in Philadelphia during the war. Can Our Curiosity Shop give a more circumstantial account of these saloons and the manner in which they were carried on? Were they sustained as a part of the Sanitary Commission work altogether or by local benevolence? F.R. ALGER.”

Answer.-The story of this enterprise, conducted by the generous and patriotic citizens of Philadelphia, forms one of the most pleasing episodes in the history of the war. That city lay in the channel of the great stream of volunteer soldiers pouring from New England, New York aud New Jersey toward the rendezvous at Wash ington, D. C. These soldiers, crossing over to the city on the ferry from Camden, N. J., often vainly sought for sufficient refreshment at the bakeries of the neighborhood before taking cars for Washington. Especially was this

case when they passed through during the night er in the early morning. One morning the wife of a mechanic living near the depot, seeing a squad of soldiers looking in vain for refreshments for it was very early and the eatinghouses were not yet opened took her coffee-pot and a cup, and distributed its contents among them. This simple action was the germ of a wonderfully complete system of relief for passing... soldiers. A number of benevolent women formed themselves into a committee for the distribution of coffee,and friends added other supplies, and regular lunches were instituted to be furnished on the arrival of each train. At Arst these were distributed under the shade of some trees, but a building was soon offered them, and entire regiments were then fed at tables supplied by the kindness of the people of PhiladelShia, and waited upon by the ladies of the city. The first entire regiment which was fed there was Colonel Blenker's German Rifles, over 1,000 strong, on May 27, 1861. Another building was soon taken, and both were enlarged to meet their needs, and both had temporary hospitals attached. One of these institutions was known as the Cooper Volunteer Refreshment Saloon, from a Mr. Cooper who gave the building. The second was called the Union Volunteer Retreshment Saloon. During the war 1,200,000 men received at these places each bountiful meal given by the patriotic generosity of the Philadelphians. The record of one of the saloons-the Union-was very fully kept. Here there were 750,000 men fed, 40,000 received a night's lodging, 15,000 refugees and freedmen were taken in, fed, and helped to friends or employment, while in the hospitals the wounds of 20,000 soldiers were dressed. This work was conducted almost wholly' by women, and these self-sacrificing heroines, apprised of the arrival of a regiment or company by the firing of a sig. nal gun, kept for the purpose, would go at any hour of the day or night, and with the utmost cheerfulness, dispense the food to the soldiers. These saloons were formally closed in August, 1865, after over a million of men had been liberally fed through their means.

THE BOYAL FAMILY OF STUART. ROOK FALLS, Iows, Trace the royal family of Stuart from its ori gin to the present time. Is any representative of the royal branch now living? What noble families are Connected with the original house of Stuart? W.ROBB.

Answer.-The Stuarts were descended from one Walter Fitz-Alan, of Shropshire, Eng., whose father, a Norman baron, had received his possessions in England as a gift from William the Conqueror. Walter entered the service of David L, King of Scotland, and from him received the dignity of Lord High Steward of that kingdom. This office became hereditary in the family, and descended from father to son without a break for seven generations, and was adopted by the family as its surname. The French spellingStuart-was adopted by a part of the descendanta later, some adhering, however, to the earlier form, Stewart, and still others taking that of Stouart. Walter, the sixth Steward of the line, was one of Robert Bruce's

warm supporters, and commanded a division the field of Bannockburn, and for his fealty was rewarded by the hand of Bruce's daughter, the fair Marjorie, Their son Robert, seventh high Steward, was regent of the kingdom during the minority of Robert Bruce's son, David II, and during his captivity in England; and on his death in 1371 succeeded to the Scottish throne, as Robert IL The kingdom now passed from father to son in this remarkable family without a break for seven generations, Robert II. being succeeded by Robert III, and he by the Jameses in order, L. IL, III, IV., and V. James L was. captured when 14 years old, while on an English ship on his way to France. He was held by the English king nineteen years, but was allowed meanwhile every privilege suited to his dignity but liberty. Upon being set free in 1424 he married Jane Beaufort, cousin of Henry V. of England, and went back to take possession of his kingdom. He was brutally murdered in 1437 by a band of conspirators, and was succeeded by his son, then a child of but 7 years old. James IL reigned twenty-three years and was killed in 1460 by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh. His son, James IIL. succeeded him. when but 8 years old. This king was always in trouble with the nobles of his kingdom, and in attempting to quell a rebellion on their part was defeated, and having taken refuge in a farmhouse was treacherously murdered. His son, James IV., secured alliance with England by marrying the Princess Margaret, daughter of Henry VII, but, ten years later, a war broke out again between the two countries, in which King James perished at Flodden Field Sept. 9, 1513. His son, James V., was not quite 2 years old when he succeeded to the throne. During the long period of his regency the country was kept in continual turmoil by the struggles of the powerful nobles for supremacy. This turbulence, the king on coming to power quelled by taxing heavily the nobles, and confiscating their estates. He died in 1542, and " the succession passed to his only child, a daughter, then but 8 few days old, afterward the ill-fated Mary, Queen of Scots. Her son, James VL. of Scotland, succeeded to the English throne as James L., and thus the two kingdoms became united. It was the fate of the Stuart family to come to the English throne at the time of the transition from personal to parliamentary government. Their inability to adjust themselves to the change kept them continually embroiled with the popular leaders, and finally lost to the family its inheritance, and to one of its members his head. James L, after quarreling with Parliament for twenty-two years, died, and passed all causes of contention intact over to his son. Charles L, unable to control the popular assembly, dismissed it, and managed affairs without it for eleven years. Being compelled by poverty to convene it again, the members took things into their own hands. The king, endeavoring to carry his point by levying war against the party of the Commons, was defeated, tried for treason against the people and beheaded. The rule of the Protectorate