cated by varying levels of the mercury, as the degrees of temperature are recorded on a thermometer. Practice and some acquaintance with the conditions of the atmosphere, in different localities and in varying seasons of the year, are needed to secure accurate results even with these. 2. A great many lakes are above sea level, the chain of great lakes in North America, and the lakes of Great Bear, Athabasca, and Winnipeg, in British America, are all higher than the ocean, varying from 200 to about 600 feet. We will give the names and heights of other large bodies of water, all of which are over 1,000 feet in elevation: In North America, Moosehead Lake, in Maine, 1,070 feet; Great Salt Lake, Utah, 4.200 feet; Lake Tahoe, California, 6,500 feet. In Europe, Lakes Geneva and Constance, Switzerland, at the respective heights of 1,230 and 1,263 feet. In South America, Lakes Titicaca and Aullagas, in Bolivia, the former 12,850, the latter 12,257 feet. In Africa, Lakes Nyassa, 1,300 feet; Tanganyika, 2,800 feet; Bangweole, 4,000 feet: Victoria Nyanza, 3,800 feet, and Albert Nyanza, 2,700 feet. In Asia, Lake Baikal, Siberia, 1,420 feet; Lake Van, Armenia, 5,467 feet, and Sir-i-Kol, or Victoria Lake, in Turkestan, 15,630 feet, the highest body of water known to exist on the globe. Many lakes are also more or less depressed below sea-level: by far the most extreme depression being that of the Dead Sea, which is 1,312 feet below.

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. WEST UNION, Iowa. Will Our Curiosity Shop give a brief biography of Oliver Wendell Holmes? E. T. SCOTT.

Answer.-Oliver Wendell Holmes was a son of Dr. Abiel Holmes, a distinguished divine and author of Massachusetts, and was born Aug. 29 1809. He graduated at Harvard University in 1829, and subsequently studied medicine, going to Europe and perfecting his knowledge by attendance in the hospitals of the principal cities there. He was made professor of anatomy and physiology in Dartmouth College in 1838, and in 1847 took the same chair in the faculty of Harvard College, which he has since held. He early won considerable local fame as a poet, and published his first volume of verses in 1836. He has since published several other books of poems, which have usually been introduced to the public through the pages of the magazines or on anniversary occasions, all of which have won much popularity. He began his career as an essayist in 1857 by the publication of a series of papers in the Atlantic Monthly under the title of "The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," which were soon after issued in book form. In the same vein he afterwards wrote "The Professor at the Breakfast Table" and "The Poet at the Breakfast Table." He has also had two other volumes of essays reprinted from magazine contributions-"Soundings from the Atlantic" and "Mechanism in Thought and Morals." He has written two novels, "Elsie Venner" and "The Guardian Angel," and several volumes of medical essays, among which we may mention "Currents and Counter Currents in Medical Science" and "Border Lines in Some Provinces of

Medicine," and has been, besides, a frequent contributor to scientific and literary periodicals. His writings are very noticeable, not only for their beauty of style and purity of sentiment, but also for their originality of thought and a graceful and delicate humor that pervades them. Dr. Holmes is known as a gentleman of unusual scholarship, a very skillful physician as well as a gifted and versatile writer, and possessed of a genial and happy disposition which endears him to all who know him.

MR. BLAINE'S BELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS. CHICAGO. Was James G. Blaine's father a convert to the Catholic faith for some years before his death? Did he die in that belief, and are his remains buried in consecrated ground with those of his wife at Brownsville, Washington Co., Pa.? Were all his children baptized, educated, and confirmed as members of the Catholic Church? Did James G. Blaine erect a monument to their memory in the cemetery at Brownsville? Was James G. Blaine a devoted young member of the Catholic Church up to the age of 15 years? HUBERTUS.

of

Answer.-James G. Blaine's father, Ephraim L. Blaine, came of a Presbyterian family, but was not in early life a member of any church. He married Maria Gillespie, who was a devoted member of the Roman Catholic communion, Taking an indifferent interest in religious matters himself, he naturally left the religious training of their children to his wife, who it is distinctly stated, brought them all up in her faith, though they did not all continue in it after reaching maturity. We are not told that all were baptized and confirmed, but as it is the custom of the Catholic Church to require the observance of these forms, such was probably the case. Ephraim Blaine became, through the influence his wife, who was undoubtedly a devoted, consistent Christian, a convert to her faith some years before his death. He died in that belief, and in 1850 was buried in consecrated ground in the cemetery of the Catholic Church at Brownsville, Pa. Mrs. Blaine died in 1871 while at the house of a daughter in the West, and her remains were taken back to Brownsville and buried beside those of her husband. Several years later, James G. Blaine, with filial devotion, erected a substantial granite monument over their graves. We have no positive information concerning Mr. Blaine's youthful devotion. At the age of 27, shortly after his removal to Maine, about the time of his first entry into political life, he became a member of the Congregational Church, with which religious body he still retains connection.

THE TAY BRIDGE DISASTER. HOLCOMB, III. Give the time, cause, ana particulars of the railroad accident on the River Tay. J. S. CAMPBELL.

Answer.-The construction of a bridge over the River Tay at Dundee, Scotland, was begun in June, 1871. The bridge was two miles long, and was meant to be a most solid structure, but its building seems to have been carelessly managed from the outset. Its construction occupied over six years. The frame-work of the bridge was much injured by a heavy gale when nearly complete, Feb. 4, 1877. That injury was thought to be fully repaired, however, and work was pushed forward and the structure declared com

plete Aug. 30. It was tested on Sept. 25 follow-, ing, and opened for use May 31, 1878. The bridge was 10,612 feet long, and rested on 85 spans, some of them 90 feet above the water at low tide; the cost was £350,000, or about $1,750,000, and twenty lives were said to have been lost in its construction. At about 7:15 o'clock in the evening of Sunday, Dec. 28, 1879, while a North British mail train was passing over the bridge in a fierce gale, part of the supports gave way, leaving a gap of 3,000 feet. The train plunged downward into the rushing waters, and not one of the unfortunate persons on board was saved. There were between seventy-five and ninety persons on the train; exactly how many was never known. About fifty bodies of the lost were subsequently recovered. After the official inquiry into the causes of the disaster, Mr. H. C. Rothery, in the report, stated that "the bridge had been badly designed, badly constructed, and badly maintained." This awful disaster, and the verdict of the investigation into its cause were thought to have been the direct cause of the death of the engineer who had superintended

the construction of the bridge, Sir Thomas Bouch, He became much affected in mind, and died in October, 1880. A new bridge over the river of a very substantial character is now in process of construction.

THE SAULT ST. MARIE CANAL. MORRISON, III. How and by what means do vessels and steamers pass from the other lakes into Lake Superior?

W. B. WOOLLEY. Answer.-Vessels go up to Lake Superior by a ship canal cut through the rock, and going around the rapids of the Strait. The canal was constructed by the State of Michigan in 1855. It was, when first made, 100 feet wide at the surface and 12 feet deep, was one mile in length, with a lock 370 feet long and 70 feet wide. This canal was enlarged, about 1873, at the expense of the General Government. It is now 10212 feet wide at the top of the side wall of rock, and is 20 feet deep. It has a system of two locks of 400 by 80 feet, and a single lock of the same dimensions to overcome the difference of level at one lift.

ANCIENT TEMPLES AND PYRAMIDS-HOW BUILT. BLAIR, Neb.

Explain by what means or power the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians raised and put in place the enor mous stones used in their temples and pyramidssteam-power and modern appliances being then unknown? GEO. A. BRIGHAM.

Answer.-The answer to this question is beyond modern conjecture, so imperfect is our understanding of the extent of the mechanical knowledge of the ancients. Their appliances are believed to have been of the simplest order and their implements exceedingly crude, and yet they were able to convey these enormous blocks of stone for vast distances, over routes most difficult, and having accomplished this, to raise them to great height, and fit them in place without the aid of either cement or mortar to cover up the errors of the stone-cutter. How all this was done is one of the enigmas of modern science. It has been generally believed that inclined planes of earth were used to enable the workmen to raise the huge stones to their places, the earth being

cleared away afterward. But it is possible that the ancients had a more extended knowledge of mechanical powers than we usually give them credit for, and that they made use of machinery very like that employed by moderns for lifting great weights. Large cavities are found in some of the stones in the pyramids, which may have been worn by the foot of a derrick turning in them. That there were enormous numbers of men employed in the building of these ancient structures is well known; these results of their great aggregated strength we see, but they left no record of the means by which this strength was focused and brought most effectually to bear on their mighty tasks.

TIMOTHY OR HERD'S GRASS. SHOPIERE, Wis. What is the origin of the grass commonly called Timothy or herd's grass? CONSTANT READER.

Answer.-This grass is supposed to have been brought into the United States from Continental Europe, where it is found growing extensively from the Mediterranean to the North Sea. It received its name here from Timothy Hanson, of Maryland, who cultivated it extensively, and first brought it into general notice. It is a wild grass in Europe. and was first cultivated for hay in this country, and nearly a century ago its seed was taken to England from Maryland as a novelty. It is raised there now somewhat, but is much less valued as a hay-making grass than with us. This plant is also called herd's grass in some parts of this country, a name which leads to some confusion, for a wholly different species, the red-top, is also called herd's-grass in Pennsylvania and other Eastern States. In England it is known as cat's-tail grass. Its botanical name is phleum pratense.

FRENCH FINANCES.

XENIA, Kan. What has been the financial policy of France since the Franco-Prussian war, and present financial condition? J. M. C. Answer.-The loans and other obligations incurred to meet the war of 1870-71, including the indemnity of five milliards of francs. nearly doubled the French national debt. The total expenses arising from the war and foreign occupation has been finally stated at 9,820,000,000 francs, yet in spite of this enormous strain on the national treasury the national wealth of France has greatly increased since the war. To pay the war indemnity France borrowed money which she has yet to repay. In 1876 the interest on the national debt was 1,150,000,000 francs. In 1884 the interest on this debt had been reduced to about 706,000,000 francs. The sources of revenue at the disposal of the government are steadily increasing, especially the revenue derived from direct taxation. The direct taxes alone in 1884 amounted to over $4 per capita of the population. But, enormously taxed as the country is, the remarkable frugality, thrift, and industry of the people are constantly adding to the national wealth. In 1874 the national revenue was 2,608,550,495 francs, or over $500,000.000. In 1883 this had increased to 3,574,196,125, or about $700,000,000. To be sure, the expenditures of the republic had also in

creased largely because of the enormous public debt, but by no means in like proportion. In 1874 the expenditures were 2,782,383,190 francs, about $33,000,000 more than the revenue for the same year, while in 1883 they were 3,573,907,839, or some $59,000 less than the year's revenue. In 1883 the French Minister of Finance published the results of an inquiry into the receipts and expenditures of the government during the years 1869-80. The surplus of receipts for this time amounted to 386,205.838 francs, or over $77,000,000. The financial administration of France under the republic may be said to have been characterized by economy, but considering the enormous debt of the country and the heavy tax borne by the people, it has not been as careful as it should have been, having been productive of no such lightening of the people's burdens as might justly have been expected.

THE NOVEMBER METEORS.

Was the great meteoric shower of Nov. 13. 1833. ever fully explained? A. H. Answer.-Every year, about the middle of November, there are unusual numbers of meteors to be seen. Immediately after the meteoric display of 1833, which was visible in both hemispheres, the Astronomer Arago advanced the theory that these remarkable showers had a regular period of thirty-three years, and that they were identical in origin with the yearly appearances of "falling stars" in November. Subsequent investigation found distinct record of twelve remarkable meteor showers, at dates which, though not consecutive, implied a possibly recurring period of about thirty-three years. The reappearance of such a shower in November, 1866, gave such confirmatiou to the theory of Arago that it was generally accepted by scientists. It is known that meteors are caused by the friction of ærolites with the atmosphere of the earth, and as seems certain, from the composition of meteoric stone and its rapid motion, it does not originate either in the moon or in the earth's atmosphere. It is further noticed that whenever a meteoric shower occurs the shooting stars radiate from a point which does not vary with the motion of the earth, and which is therefore entirely out of the earth's orbit. The point of radiance of the November meteors is always in the constellation Leo. Reasoning from these data, it has been presumed that the meteors move about the sun in an elliptical orbit which at some point approaches very near to that of the earth, When a group of meteors reaches this point at the same time with the earth many of the aerolites are drawn within the sphere of the earth's attraction, and a shower of meteors follows. There are several periods of the year when great numbers of meteors have been known to appear, and at first it was thought that these had a common origin. But further investigation led. to the belief that the November meteors travel in an orbit quite distinct from that of the meteors appearing at other seasons. The perihelion of this orbit approaches very near to the earth's orbit, its aphelion lies beyond the orbit of

Uranus. Meteors are distributed all along this orbit, so that we see some here every year, but the chief group is found at one part of the belt, which only approaches us about three times in a century. The discovery in 1865 of a faint telescopic comet in this same orbit led to the further theory that this meteoric group was originally caused by the disintegration or breaking up of the comet's tail.

LOSS OF THE STATE OF FLORIDA. CHICAGO. How many passengers were lost on the steamship State of Florida? How large was the ship, and what was the cause of the disaster? D. MILNE.

Answer. -The steamer State of Florida left New York April 12, 1884. In mid-ocean, about 11:30 o'clock on the night of April 18, she collided with the bark Ponema, of Chatham, N. H. The bark was struck amidships and was cut into so badly that it went to the bottom almost in-♦ stantly. The State of Florida had her bow stove in and did not sink for about fifteen minutes, during which time part of the boats were launched and some of the passengers got safely into them. Had they known how fast the ship was filling probably a much larger number could have escaped in the boats, but they did not fully understand their danger, and thus many went down with the vessel. Of the fifteen members of the crew of the Ponema, only three were saved, and but forty-four of the 167 persons-passengers and crew-on board the State of Florida, making the total loss of life 135 persons. The survivors, after being thirty-five hours in the boats without food or water-for they saved no supplies from the ship-were rescued by a Norwegian vessel. The State of Florida was a firstclass Clyde-built steamer, rating A 100 in the English Lloyds. She had been launched Glasgow in 1879, and she had a measurement of 4,000 tons, was 371 feet long, with 38 feet breadth of beam, and depth of hold 28 feet. She had five bulkheads and a compound engine, was constructed of iron, and was in all respects a model sea-going vessel. How the collision oocurred it is not very well known. The night was bright and clear and the sea smooth. Some carelessness in the watch of one or both of the vessels was doubtless to blame for the melancholy accident.

THE AIR WE BREATHE.

in

Answer.-In common life, at the easy average of 18 to 20 inspirations a minute an ordinary man will inhale and exhale a bulk af air amounting to about 4,000 gallons a day, and while undergoing violent exertion will require much more than this. The air, when breathed, is not consumed in the sense of being utterly destroyed, but it is changed. In passing through the lungs, it leaves about one-fifth of its oxygen, and combines nearly two-fifths more with the carbon or waste material of the body in the lungs, and exhales it as carbonic acid. Now. carbonic acid is poison to the lungs. So that air after having been breathed two or

three times, becomes deadly unless puritied by the combination with it of more oxygen. For the necessary supply of this life-sustaining element, we are dependent, in the city as well as the country,on nature's laboratory. Here, by the action of forces that are never at rest, by the law of gaseous

diffusion-which causes gases of different densities to intermix upon contact, thus diluting the most noxious to a degree of absolute harmlessness in a very short space of timeby the constant movement of wind currents, by means of rain, which washes down atmospheric impurities and causes them to be absorbed into the earth; by the generation of ozone in the air through the agency of electric currents-by these and other means the life-giving elements of the air are constantly renewed. Though one of the most important agencies of atmospheric purification, that of trees and vegetation, is, as a rule, wholly wanting in a closely built citv. the other means used by nature are so far effective as to greatly counteract the evils resulting from its crowded population.

We say nothing of ill-ven

tilated houses or filthy streets, since these are, of course, most potent means by which the health-giving air is rendered an agent of disease and death, but are in no sense necessary, even in the most densely peopled city.

KRUPP GUNS. MORRISTOWN, II. Is the Krupp gun the largest in the world? READER.

Answer.-The Krupp guns are of different sizes. They are made by Krupp, the famous gunmaker, who at his great factories at Essen and his iron and coal mines employs 20,000 men and uses 450 steam engines, having altogether 185,000-horse power. The large Krupp guns are said to be larger than those made in any other foundry. The Essen works have now in process of manufacture a monster gun for the Italian Government, which is to weigh 130 tons, and will unquestionably be the largest piece of ordnance in the world.

DIVISION OF PUBLIC LANDS. LAPEER, Mich. Who originated the present system of subdividing public lands, whereby we can describe any parcel of land by the number of its section, township, or range? H. D. SMITH.

Answer.-This system dates back to the very dawn of our country's existence as a Nation. It was embodied in a report adopted by the Tenth Continental Congress, in 1785. Thomas Jefferson was the chairman of the committee to whom the subject had been previously referred, and there is little doubt that we owe the main features of the plan to his brilliant and practical genius. There were some minor changes of it, however, before its adoption. He divided the land into divisions, called "hundreds," which were to be ten miles square, each of them to be subdivided into plots one mile square, numbered from one to one hundred. When the report was before Congress an amendment was offered by James Monroe reducing the principal divisions to six miles square, to be called "townships," each township to be subdivided into sections one mile square, containing 640 acres. This amend

ment was adopted, but the general plan of survey remained as it had been originally introduced, and in the same form is still in use.

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN TREATY. NEWMAN, Dll. Give the provisions of the Spanish-American_treaty now before Congress. J. W. KING.

Answer.-This treaty is the most complete reciprocity treaty ever negotiated by our government. It provides that Spain shall admit a long list of the products of the United States into Cuba and Porto Rico free of duty, and charge only a limited and specified duty on a still longer list, in consideration of a large and important deorease in the duties charged by the United States on the products exported by Cuba and Porto Rico into this country. The objection which has been made to the treaty is founded on the fact that these concessions are not equal. For instance, the reduction of the tariff on sugar, the principal product sent by those islands to this country, will cause a loss to us and a gain to them of about $45,000,000 annually. On the other hand, on the principal export of this country to the West Indies-breadstuffs-there still remains a duty of $3 a barrel. In addition to the reduction of duties on products exchanged, this treaty also covers special shipping privileges for the vessels of the two nations, the abolishment of all tonnage and consular fees ou vessels and cargoes, and the reduction of all other fees to the charges made for national vessels engaged in the coasting trade. It further provides for special privileges to commercial travelers, and for reforms in the Cuban customs regulations, and stipulates against the imposition of any new export taxes by that country in the future.

THE LIVERPOOL DOCKS. WALKER, Mo. Please give a description of the docks at Liverpool and oblige a reader E. N.

Answer.-The docks at Liverpool are on both sides of the river Mersey, extending on the side next the city 644 miles, with a water area of 333 acres, and a lineal quayage of 22 miles. This great system of floating docks was commenced by the corporation in 1709. It was for a century under the control of the city council, but since 1856 has been managed by a board, which controls the structures on both sides of the river. The amount of capital invested in the docks is £10,000,000, of which £7,000,000 is in Liverpool proper. The docks are large water-tight enclosures. with flood gates, which are opened during the flowing, and closed during the ebbing, tide, so that vessels within can be kept afloat and at the same level, while being loaded and unloaded. It may be said that Liverpool owes her great commercial prosperity to her great system of docks, as without them the Mersey would never have given anything more than a harbor for fishing smacks. The great landing stage at Liverpool is the finest structure of the kind in the world. It was originally built in 1857, and was greatly enlarged in 1874, but almost immediately upon its completion, July 28, 1874, it accidentally caught fire, and as the timber was impregnated with creosote, it was en

tirely burned. It was again built in the most substantial manner. Its length is 2,063 feet, and its breadth 80 feet. It is supported on floating pontoons rising and falling with the tide, connected with the quay by seven bridges, besides a floating bridge for heavy traffic 550 feet in length. The southern half is devoted to the traffic of the river ferries, and the northern half is used for sea-going steamers and for the tenders of the great ships of the line. The revenue of these docks is over one and onefourth millions pounds sterling annually, derived mainly from tonnage and dock rates. Vessels in the docks at Liverpool are protected by a seawall, which is over five miles in length, eleven feet in average thickness, and forty feet in average height from its foundations.

FOREIGNERS IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY. MOUNTAIN HOME, D. T. Did the United States Government, at the breaking out of the late civil war, refuse to enlist foreigners in the service of the army and navy? PAUL TIETZE.

Answer.-The Government was glad to receive the services of every loyal able-bodied man willing to volunteer. The question of the enlistment of foreigners, however, came up under the conscription act of 1862. It was claimed that persons of foreign birth were not liable to be drafted under this act. President Lincoln therefore issued a proclamation in May, 1863, defining the relation of aliens to the draft, holding all liable to it "who have declared on oath their intention to become citizens and may be in the country sixty days from date [May 8, 1863], and all who have declared their intention to become citizens and have voted." This was intended to prevent forcible enlistment of persons not citizens; but it was no bar against the voluntary enlistment of those who, because of alienage, were outside of the conscription act.

DISCOVERY OF THE INHALATION OF ETHER HUNTER, Ill. Who discovered the inhalation of ether and when? W. H. THORNTON. Answer.-Though the power of the ethers to produce insensibility to pain was known to physicians as far back as 1823, the direct application of sulphuric ether in surgical operations was not made until more than twenty years later. The discovery was claimed by three American scientists, Dr. W. T. G. Morton and Dr. Charles T. Jackson, both of Boston, and Dr. Horace Wells, of Hartford. It seems proved that all three of these physicians made practical tests of the power of this agent to produce insensibility to pain, at about the same time, but the experiments of Dr. Morton were the most successful and were the first to call public attention to its value,-a discovery by which, as Dr. Holmes says, "the fierce extremity of suffering has been steeped in the waters of forgetfulness, and the deepest furrow in the knotted brow of agony has been smoothed forever." The first public application of ether during surgical operations was made at the Massachusetts General Hospital by Dr. Morton Oct. 16, 1846.

From

this dates the introduction of anaesthetics into surgery. It is not worth while to go into the details of the controversy as to the first discoverer,

which has never been fully settled. Valuable as the discovery was to the human race, no one of those concerned in it ever received much benefit from it. Dr. Morton secured a patent, both in this country and in England, but was ever able to protect it, and a bill making an appropriation for the first discoverer of anesthesia, which was brought up several times in Congress, was never passed by that body.

A CHEAP BAROMETER.

CHICAGO. How can I make a good and cheap barometer? J. GILHOOLY.

Answer.-Take an eight-ounce bottle, the glass being clear and white; pour into it six ounces of the highest colored whisky that can be procured, and into this put a little more gum camphor than the liquor will dissolve. Set it on a windowledge or mantel. On the approach of rain on stormy weather the camphor will settle toward the bottom of the bottle, while fine weather is indicated by the feather-like appearance of the camphor as it rises and floats in the liquid. If alcohol is used for this barometer it must be diluted until it is no stronger than the whisky, for if it is so much of the camphor will be held in solution that the atmosphere will have no perceptible effect upon it.

FINGAL'S CAVE-LAST BATTLE ON FRENCH SOIL. LOUISVILLE, Kan. 1. Give a description of Fingal's Cave. 2. What was the last battle fought on French soil? WILLIAM TINGLEY. Answer.-1. Fingal's Cave is a remarkable grotto on the southwest coast of the island of Staffa, about seven miles off the west coast of Mull, Scotland. It was probably called after Fingal, the legendary hero of Gaelic poetry. The cave is 227 feet deep. is 42 feet wide at the entrance and 22 feet wide at its inner end. It is 60 feet high at the opening, and is flanked on both sides by basaltic pillars, above which the walls meet in a beautiful arch. The sea is the floor of the cavern, and at low tide the water is 20 feet deep. The cavern can be readily entered, excepting at extreme high tide, by small boats. Un the east side of the entrance the columns are much broken. Between the pillars of dark-gray basalt are many, stalactites of various beautiful tints. 2. The last battle on French soil was fought at Belleville, in the suburbs of Paris, May 28, 1871. It was the final struggle of the insurrection of the Commune, which broke out soon after the close of the Franco-Prussian war. This mad outbreak cost nearly 100,000 lives and destroyed property to the value of nearly $2,000,000.

THE LANGUAGE USED BY CHRIST, KENDALLVILLE, Ill. Will Our Curiosity Shop state what language Christ preached in, in and about Jerusalem, and what was the language generally used by the common people at that time? MRS. A. J. HANMER.

Answer. The language used by Christ was the Aramaic, the dialect of Northern Syria. The Israelites were much in contact with Aramaan populations, and some words from that tongue became incorporated into the Hebrew at a very early date. At the time of Hezekiah, Aramaic had become the official language of both Judea and Assyria: that is, the language spoken at the