1778, it was returned to the State House, and a new steeple built for it. Several years after it cracked, for some unknown reason, under a stroke of the clapper, and its tone was thus destroyed. An attempt was made to restore its tone by sawing the crack wider, but without success. This bell was sent to New Orleans during the winter to be exhibited in the World's Fair there. The Pullman Company gave one of their handsomest cars for the transit. It was in the charge of three custodians appointed by the Mayor of Philadelphia, who did not leave it night or day, and guarded it as fully as possible against accident. A pilot engine preceded the train carrying the bell, over the entire route. It left Philadelphia, Jan. 24, 1885, and returned in June. AERIAL NAVIGATION. OSBORNE, Kan. Will Our Curiosity Shop give us a short sketch of aerial navigation? What are its probable future prospects? What forms of vessel are likely to be used? PUCK. Answer. The problem of navigating the air has been discussed from the very earliest times, and grotesque flying-machines of various kinds were tried during the middle ages, though with but little success. The first balloon ascension was made at Paris by De Rozier, Oct. 15, 1773. The bag of the balloon was inflated with heated air. The experiment aroused much interest, and M. Charles, professor of natural philosophy at Paris, undertook a number of experiments with the help of some young men, students in his classes; and Dec. 1, 1783, made an ascension, even more successful than that of M. Rozier, by using hydrogen gas for purposes of inflation. Curiously enough, at the same time Messrs. Rittenhouse and Hopkins, of Philadelphia, were conducting experiments in the same line, and during that month also succeeded in making a balloon and accomplishing an ascension in it. The plan of these early balloons was no doubt crude, but to M. Charles aeronauts are indebted for several of the most important details in the construction of their air vessels. He invented the valve at the top of the balloon, and the hoop attached to the balloon with netting by which he suspended the car below. In 1785 occurred the first balloon accident. M. Rozier was attempting to oross the English Channel in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas when it caught fire,and the car with its two occupants was precipitated 8,000 feet upon the rocks below. During the same year a successful balloon passage of the channel was made by M. Blanchard, the first professional aeronaut, and an American traveler. In 1803, when the balloon first began to be used for the purpose of making scientific explorations of the upper regions of the atmosphere, M. Gay-Lussao used ropes for the first time to steady the balloon and thus counteracted its rotatory motion, which was one of the most serious difficulties in handling it. The balloon has also been used for military purposes, as in the slavery war and in the war between the French and Prussians. During the seige of Paris quite a successful degree of communication was kept up between the beleagured city In and the world without by these messengers whose buoyancy enabled them to rise far above the range of the enemy's guns. Over ten tons of letters were sent out of Paris in balloons during the seige. But though the balloon was thus put to use in various ways, it was manifest to the scientists that it did not and probably never could completely solve the difficult problem of air navigation. It could not be guided or propelled successfully and was always at the mercy of every varying current of wind. Those who studied the subject thoroughly became convinced that a successful air-ship must be made of a very different shape, and must carry with it its own power. In 1852 Henri Gifford, a Frenchman, made the first cylindrical balloon. It had a car below, which carried a steam engine for driving power. It was reasonably successful, but lacked power, as the weight of the engine required a larger balloon to lift it than it could propel. 1872 Dupuy de Loine made some successful experiments with an air-ship of similar shape, which was propelled by a screw attached to the car, and worked by means of a capstan. Experiments were also made in Connecticut by Mr. Ritchell at several times between 1871 and 1877 with a cylinder balloon, in which fans were used for power. In 1878 a German, Mr. Schroeder, made a spindle-shaped balloon, driven by a screw, that was worked by an electric engine. In 1881 Mr. Gaston Sissandier also succeeded in driving a balloon successfully by means of eleotricity. But the crowning effort thus far in this line has undoubtedly been the air-ship of Captains Renard and Krebs, with which the ascension was made at Mendon, France, Aug. 9, 1884 This ship is a cigar-shaped balloon, carrying a platform, on which the steering and propelling apparatus is placed. The balloon is made of strong silk and covered with a light netting of cords and is 197 feet long and thirty-nine feet in diameter. To the netting is suspended the platform, 131 feet long and ten feet broad, on the front of which is fixed the propeller, a screw of light wooden frame-work and air-tight cloth. rudder is at the rear of the platform. peller is driven by electricity, generated by a dynamo, which is in turn driven by stored electricity. The first ascension of this ship fully satisfied the most sanguine expectations of its builders. It was driven seven miles and back in the space of forty minutes, and obeyed fully every movement of the rudder. As to the future of aerial navigation, there is good reason to think that some remarkable achievements in this line may be witnessed before the close of the nineteenth century. Six years ago E. C. Stedman. who contributed a very interesting article to Soribner's Magazine on the history and possibilities of air-travel, estimated that but two important obstacles stood in the way of the suocessful use of air-ships. One was, the need of a material, light, firm, and tenacious, with which the frames of the vessels could be made at a moderate cost. The second was, a motive power sufficient to resist the force of the air currents, which did not, like steam, require cumbrous ma. The The pro may now be regarded as removed, the first by the discovery of a cheap process for obtaining aluminum, which is one of the strongest and by far the lightest in weight of all the metals, and the second by the invention of means by which electricity can be packed in small compass and stored for use when needed. Thus by the logical applieation of discoveries already made, without waiting for yet newer and more startling wonders, we may look in the near future for an advance in the science of air navigation which may cause important changes in existing conditions and produce effects yet undreamed of on the commerce of the world. THE BULE OF THE ROAD. TROY, PA. The "rule of the road" in the United States is "turn to the right," as the law directs. In England it is the reverse, and the idea is preferable on several accounts to our practice. They say there: "The rule of the road is a paradox quite- If you turn to the left you are sure to be right, As most of our old customs come from England, can you tell how this change originated? QUERY. Answer.-The rule "turn to the right" only holds in this country in the case where two vehieles going in opposite directions meet. When one vehicle overtakes another the foremost gives way to the left and the other passes by on the "off side;" and when a vehicle is crossing the direction of another it keeps to the left and crosses in its rear. These two rules are the same in this country and in England, and why the rule concerning meeting vehicles should have been changed it is impossible to say. We find this point of difference noted by all authorities, but no reason for it is ever suggested. Perhaps it originated simply in the dislike with which our forefathers regarded all things that savored of "British tyranny." Probably. as it is easier to turn to the right than to the left, it was adopted as the more preferable custom in some of the early colonies and in due time became embodied in local law, and thus was handed down to later times. THE ESQUIMAUX. BURTON, Kan. Give a brief sketch of the Esquimaux, their habits, modes of life, etc. JOHN HUNT. Answer.-The name Esquimaux is applied to the most northerly of the American native tribes, occupying Greenland, Labrador, the Arctic shores, and the peninsula of Alaska. They call themselves Innuites, which means meu; the name Esquimaux, signifying raw-eaters, was given to them by the Algonquins. They are a hardy, muscular race, but small of stature, being generally less than five feet in height. They are of a light brown in color, though usually so dirty as to be almost black, and in features they resemble the Mongolian tribes of Asia. They have high cheek bones, small black eyes, small noses, long, straight, and coal-black hair, large heads and limbs, but small hands and feet. occupy themselves entirely in hunting, while the women perform the domestic drudgery, which principally consists in preparing the food. Owing The men to the severity of the climate in which they live, the Esquimaux are very voracious eaters, their food consisting of the flesh of whales, seals, the walrus, birds, and fish, which is often devoured r&w. Animal fat, whale blubber, and fish oil are considered great delicacies. Their dress is made of skins, and is nearly the same for both sexes. Their preparation of fur for garments is most skillful. The dog is their only domestic animal, and the species native to their country is large and powerful, and very useful to them, drawing their sledges, and aiding them in the chase. The Esquimaux construct canoes very skillfully, and also sledges. Their runners are sometimes made of wood and sometimes of bones, the latter being very light, and of great service for rapid traveling. They hunt with bows and arrows, spears and slings. They are fond of ornaments, and carve with much skill in both wood and ivory. The civilization of the Esquimaux is of a very low grade. They are filthy in personal habits to the last degree, and are absolutely wanting in education. They are not an immoral people, and have an intelligent perception of family rights, though in some tribes polygamy is still practiced. They are described by travelers as strictly honest in their dealings with each other, but they are apt to all strangers 85 their lawful regard prey. They are of kindly social disposition, though bitterly revengeful when injured. Their religion is a very vague superstition, embracing a belief in two greater spirits and many lesser ones. The Moravian mission in Greenland, however, established by Hans Egede in 1721, has succeeded in converting many of them to Christianity. The various tribes of the Esquimaux are supposed to aggregate about 40,000 individuals. They have no system of government deserving of the name. PLAYING CARDS. GREENFIELD, Iowa. When, where, and how were playing cards first invented? BOB C. HARVEY. OAKLAND, Ill. What was the origin of the pictures on playing cards, and what did they at first signify? JAMES R. G. Answer.-The invention of playing cards has been attributed to various nations. They are said to have been known in India from the earliest ages; the Chinese claim them as the invention of their emperors, and they are also traditionally ascribed to both the Arabians and the Egyptians. There is little doubt, however, that they originated in Asia at a very early date, and were introduced into Europe from the Orient about the close of the thirteenth century, probably by the Saracens. Historical mention is made of the game of cards in Germany in 1275; its use in Italy is mentioned in 1299, but no authentic record appears in French history until 1393. As early as the fifteenth century an active trade in cards sprang up in Germany, where the manufacture of them for Europe was principally carried on for some years. In England the manufacture of oards was, a hundred years later, a flourishing busi❤ ness. But no sooner had cards come to be generally used in Europe than they were pro- DEGREES OF MURDER AND MANSLAUGHTER. Answer.-Murder is defined as the killing of a human being in time of peace, "with malice aforethought, expressed or implied." The essence of murder is previous malice, and the difficulty in deciding whether a killing is murder or not usually hinges on the proof of malice. The malice need not be toward the person killed, for if a man shoots at A and misses him but kills B, it is held to be murder because of the previous intent to kill some one. Killing by dueling is murder, for it is deliberate. The possession of "sound memory and discretion" is considered by the law necessary to the crime of murder, 80 that no child, lunatic. or idiot can be punished as a murderer. The only instance where the proof of malice is not required to constitute the act of murder, is when the killing is done in the commission of a felony, as burglary or robbery. If a number of persons conspire to commit an unlawful act, in the execution of which murder is committed, they are all held guilty of murder, If several persons conspire to bring about the death of another, all are held guilty, though only one commits the deed. But if one was compelled by the threats of others against his life to take part in ' such act or conspiracy, the proof of such compulsion would free him from the charge of murder. Manslaughter is unlawful homicide without the condition of malice. It 18 either voluntary, where there was an intent to commit injury, or involuntary where there was no such intent. The killing of another in the heat of passion, or under· '. great immediate provocation, is manslaughter. To cause the death of another through gross negligence, as when a physician or apothecary gives the wrong medicine to a sick person, or when through carelessness of some one employed on a railroad or a steamer an ao-`.* cident occurs, causing loss of life, is usually accounted manslaughter. The gradations of these crimes differ in different States. Thus in some States murder is divided into degrees, and only murder in the first degree is punished by death. Generally deliberate, malicious murder and murder committed in the perpetration of some other infamous crime is held to be murder in the first degree, while all other murder is classed in the second degree, though sometimes "the first degree" is of wider application. Manslaughter includes so many grades of the crime of homicide that it has been by the Legislatures of some, States divided into several degrees, to each of which a term of imprisonment, of greater or less length, has been affixed. In other States they courts are left to define the degree of crime and apportion the punishment. THE FIXED STARS-OTHER SUNS. CHICAGO. Are all the stars suns like our own, and in all probability attended by planets as our sun is? What are fixed stars? DECNEA. Answer. The fixed stars were at first so called to distinguish them from the planets or wanderers. For while the latter orbs are continually changing their positions with reference to the other heavenly bodies the fixed stars seem to the unaided eye to keep the same relative positions in the celestial sphere generation after generation. But by the aid of the telescope it has been learned that this unchangeability is not real; that these stars really move, some of them with great rapidity, but their distance from us is so great that the rate of change is imperceptible during any brief period of time. It may not be perceived in a single century or two, but in the duration of thousands of years. it becomes visible. That these fixed stars are all suns of other systems is no longer doubted by astronomers. We can not see the planets that revolve around them, because at their great distance reflected light would not be visible to us, but we believe such planets to be there, for reasoning from our knowledge of the works of the Creator, He would not create those magnificent sources of light and heat without putting them to some use. The distances of these suns from our system and from each other are so great that they may be said to be actually beyond the measurement not merely of all human means of computing distance, but even of finite comprehension. The distances of a few of them from us have been measured, but the most are so far away that by no known means can we even approximate their immense distances. The nearest fixed star to our system is Alpha Centauri, one of the stars in the constellation of the Centaur, and is 21,850,000.000.000 miles distant from us or 230,000 times as far as from the earth to the sun. If our sun were moved so far away it would give us less than one-third as much light as now comes to us from this star. So we may believe Alpha Centauri to be a sun with a surface three times as great as that of our "orb of day," and a volume over five times as great. Many of the fixed stars are probably many thousand times as large as our sun. We may write in figures the distances that can reduce such mighty orbs to mere twinkling points of light, we may speak of them as so many billions of billions of miles, but they convey no real idea to us. Our minds can not conceive of such immensity; it belongs to the unthinkable knowledge of the infinite. If we needed further evidence than that given by reasoning on the revelations of the telescope to prove to us that the fixed stars are suns resembling our sun in general constitution and condition, we have found it in spectroscopic analysis, which shows us that the light from them is essentially similar to that which emanates from our sun, being formed by the consumption of similar gases, oxygen, hydrogen, etc. THE DARK DAY IN NEW ENGLAND. The east Answer.-On May 19, 1780, there was a remarkable darkening of the sky and atmosphere over a large part of New England, which caused much alarm among those who witnessed it. darkness began between 10 and 11 o'clock on the day named, and continued in some places through the entire day, and was followed by an unusually intense degree of blackness during the ensuing night. This phenomenon extended from the northeastern part of New England westward as far as Albany, and southward to the coast of New Jersey. The most intense and prolonged darkness, however, was confined to Massachusetts,. especially to the ern half of the State. It came up from the southwest, and overhung the country like a pall. It was necessary to light candles in all the houses, and thousands of good people, believing that the end of all things terrestrial had come, betook themselves to religious devotions. One incident of the occasion has been woven into verse with excellent effect by the poet Whittier, The Connecticut Legislature was in session on that day, and as the darkness came on and grew more and more dense, the members became terrified, and thought that the day of judgment had come; so a motion was made to adjourn. At this, a Mr. Davenport arose and said: "Mr. Speaker, it is either the day, of judgment, or it is not. If it is not, there is no need of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found doing my duty. I move that candles be brought and that we proceed to business." Mr. Davenport's suggestion was taken, candles were brought in, and business went on as usual. As to the explanation of this phenomenon, scientists have been much puzzled. It was plain from the falling of the barometer that the air was surcharged with heavy vapor. The darkness then, it might be said, was only the result of 8 dense fog, but the question of the cause of 80 remarkable a fog was still unanswered. Omitting this unascertained primary cause, then, Professor Williams, of Harvard College, who subsequently made a thorough investigation of the matter, gave it as his opinion that this unprecedented quantity of vapor had gathered in the air in layers so as to cut off the rays of light, by repeated refraction, in a remarkable degree. He thought that the specific gravity of this vapor must have been the same as that of the air, which caused it to be held so long in suspension in the atmosphere. In this case the extent of the darkness would coincide with the area of the vapor, and it would continue until a change in the gravity of the air caused the vapors to ascend or descend. In some places when the darkness cleared it was as if the vapor was lifted and borne away by the wind like a dark pall, and in others, after a period of intensest darkness the atmosphere gradnally lightened again. In our day, a phenomenon of this kind would be thoroughly investigated to its most remote possible cause; but then, owing to the sparse settlement of the country and the difficulties of travel, the investigation of distant causes could not be made. Large fires may have prevailed that spring in the forests of Western New York and Pennsylvaniaa region then an absolute wilderness-the smoke of which was borne through the upper regions of the atmosphere, to fall when it came to a locality of less buoyant air, down to the lower strata. We say these fires may have recently preceded this day, and served as its sufficient cause, but we have only presumptive evidence that they did occur. Had Professor Williams entertained a supposition of the previous existence of such fires, he had then no means of verifying it, and long before the advent of railroads and telegraphs, or even of stage lines, the scientific theories of the dark day had passed from the general memory. SOME TARIFF TOPICS. WATERFORD, Wis, 1. In what year did England establish a revenue? 2. Upon how many articles does she derive a revenue at the present time? 3. If the list is not too long name them and give the amount of revenue upon each. W. C. L. Answer:-1. The question is asked in what year did England establish a revenue. We suppose a "revenue tariff" is meant. She is usually stated to have done so in 1846. That was the year of her repeal of the protective duties on corn (breadstuffs). 2. We find various authorities stating the number at from twenty-two to 100, accordingly as they count subdivisions unone head, but bearing differ rates as Independent articles or 3. In John McLean's complete tariff hand-book published at Toronto, Canada, the following is given as being the complete list der ent not. In the year 1870 the revenue collected from sugar was £5,396,561; tea, £2,643,296; spirits, foreign and colonial, £4,191,400; coffee, £347,755; wine, £1,476,404; tobacco, £6,608,716. These articles yielded £20,664,132, while all other articles yielded only £784,771 (about 328 per cent). In 1871 the duty on sugar was reduced, and in 1874 it was repealed. At present the amount of revenue from all import duties averages from $96,000,000 to $102,000,000. Tobacco yields $43,000,000; tea, $18,500,000; coffee, $2,000,000; rum, $11,510,000; brandy, $7,935,000; wine, $7,000,000. HOW MIRRORS ARE MADE. COON RAPIDS, Iowa. How is quicksilver applied to glass to make looking-glasses or mirrors? SUBSCRIBER. Answer.-A large stone table, ground quite smooth, is so arranged as to be easily inclined somewhat to one side by means of a screw underneath it. Around the edge of the table is a groove. First, while the surface of the table is perfectly level, tin-foil is carefully laid all over it. A strip of glass is then placed on each of three sides of the foil, and the molten quicksilver is poured from ladles upon the foil until nearly a quarter of an inch deep. The affinity of the mercury for the tin-foil and the mechanical obstruction of the glass keep it from flowing off. The plate of glass for the mirror, which has been cleaned with especial care, is now dexterously slid upon the molten metal from the open side, that is, the side on which no glass strip has been placed. When exactly in its place it is held till one edge of the table has been raised by the screw, and the superfluous meroury has run off into the groove and thence into a receptacle at one end. The table is then tilted back to a level, and heavy weights are placed on the glass, and it is left thus for several hours. It is then turned over and put on a frame, the side covered with the amalgam—that is, the tinfoil and mercury-placed uppermost. In this position the amalgam becomes hard enough to allow the glass to be set on edge, but it must stand for several weeks to thoroughly harden, for the coating is very easily injured at first. Other methods are used for making mirrors. They are coated with silver in various ways, also with platinum and aluminum, these metals being applied in one method by means of the electric current. But the finest mirrors are still made by the old amalgamation method, which, it may be noted, was invented by the Venetians in the sixteenth century. THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. ANDREWS, Ind. A brief history of the causes and results of the Franco-Prussian war would be interesting. C. F. SNOWDEN. Answer.-The Franco-Prussian war originated in the French Emperor's jealousy of the increasing power of Prussia. The latter nation was victorious in a war with Denmark in 1864, and another with Austria in 1866, and subsequently the old German Confederation, which was merely a loose union of states, was annulled and a second confederation was formed under the supremacy of the King of Prussia. Louis Napoleon, in 1866, endeavored to enter into a secret offensive and defensive alliance with the Prussian government, but Bismarck, the Prime Minister, would not consider that proposition. In March, 1867, the French Emperor proposed to purchase Luxembourg from Holland, but the scheme was strongly opposed by Prussia, as that province had formerly belonged to the German Confederation and was still garrisoned by Prussian soldiers. The affair was only settled by a conference of the European powers at London, at which the neutrality of Luxembourg was guaranteed and the removal of the Prussian garrison was agreed upon. In 1870, the throne of Spain becoming vacant, Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern, a connection of the Prussian royal family, consented to become a candidate for it. The French government denounced this as a scheme for Prussian aggrandizement, and speeches were made in the French Assembly, threatening war if Prince Leopold's candidacy was not withdrawn. Great Britain interfered to settle matters, and finally Prince Leopold de |