stars.

He considered it necessary to make three observations in right ascension, and three in declination. Up to 1879 only about one third of the observations had been made. The annual number of observations was about 7.000. Since 1879 the instruments have been increased by the Bischoffsheim meridian circle, and the director, Admiral Mouchez has augmented the observing-staff. During the past eight years the number of observations for the catalogue has amounted to about 27,500. The first installment of this valuable catalogue has been published in two volumes, one devoted to the catalogue, and the other to the individual observations. The stars are in the first six hours of right ascension, observed during the years 1837 to 1881. It contains 7,245 stars, and represents 80,000 observations in both elements. The introductory chapters contain a comparison of the Paris Catalogue with Auwer's rereduction of Bradley. M. Bossert furnishes a valuable investigation of the proper motions of 374 stars in the catalogue, and supplies a long list of errors in Lalande.

In the Dunsink Catalogue of 1,012 southern stars, by Rambaut, most of the stars are between 2° and 23° south declination. The observations were made between November, 1882, and September, 1885, and are of stars which needed reobservation.

The second part of the eighth volume of the O'Gyalla Catalogue has been recently published. This catalogue briefly indicates the character of the spectrum of each star observed in the zone selected, which lies between the equator and the 15th parallel of south declination. The publication is intended as a continuation of the spectroscopic study of the northern heavens projected some years ago by Prof. Vogel and Dr. Dunér. The faintest stars observed The third volume of are of the 7 magnitude. the Potsdam Observations" gave the first installment of the survey, the number of stars being 4,051, lying in the zone between 20° north and 1° south declination. The O'Gyalla Catalogue contains 2,022 stars. The spectra show that types I a and II a are most frequent. Only three cases of III b are given.

66

en.

says:

S. C. Chandler has published a valuable catalogue of variable stars, in Nos. 179 and 180 of the "Astronomical Journal." The catalogue has been printed separately for distribution. "Thirteen years have passed The author since the appearance of Schönfeld's Second Catalogue of variable stars. A work that shall represent the knowledge of to day as that did the knowledge of its date, is an urgent need of this branch of astronomy." This preliminary catalogue is issued in hopes of supplying that A great deal of care has been given to need. its preparation. The catalogue shows that of the 225 stars comprised in it, 160 are distinctly periodic; 12 belong to the so-called Nova. Of the periodic variables, Mr. Chandler has been able to assign both maximum and minimum epochs for 63 stars; maximum epochs alone for 82; minimum epochs alone for 14, 9 of these being of the Algol type. The elements of 124 stars are the results of Mr. Chandler's own investigations; for 22 he has adopted those of Schönfeld, and for 14 those of Argelander, Gould, Parkhurst, and others, after independent examination had shown that the data at hand would not give essentially improved values. He has added to the catalogue an arbitrary estimate of the color or redness of The catalogue also contains many of the stars. a list of some of the doubtful cases of variables. Polaris.-T. H. Safford gives the year 2102 ▲. D. as the time of nearest approach of Polaris to

the north pole, when the declination will be 89° 32′ 23." The star, he says, will reach 89° about the year 1944, and be for about 300 years within a degree of the pole.

Medals. The gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of England was awarded on Feb. 10, 1888, to Prof. Arthur Auwers, for his re-reduction of Bradley's observations. At the April meeting of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, the Draper Astronomical Medal was presented to Prof. Edward C. Pickering, Director of the Harvard College Observatory. At the same meeting the Lawrence Smith Medal for original work on the subject of Meteorites, was awarded to Prof. Hubert A. Newton, of Yale College, New Haven, Mass.

Bibliography.-A large number of valuable papers have been printed in the serial publications devoted to astronomical knowledge, and during the year the following books have been published: "The Asteroids or Minor Planets between Mars and Jupiter," by Daniel Kirkwood; "Movements of the Earth," by J. Norman Lockyer; "Old and New Astronomy," several parts, by Richard A. Proctor; "Astronomy for Amateurs," by Thomas W. Oliver; "The New Astronomy," by Samuel P. Langley. "A Text-book on Astronomy," by Prof. Charles A. Young. The Smithsonian Institution has published a "Bibliography of Astronomy for the year 1887," by William C. Winlock, of the U. S. Naval Observatory at Washington, D. C.

Messrs. Chandler and Ritchie have published the new "Science Observer Code," to be used in the telegraphic distribution of announcements of discovery and of positions from Oct. 1, 1888.

ATLANTIC OCEAN, HYDROGRAPHY OF. Rapid progress has been made of late years in the acquirement of knowledge concerning the sea and its phenomena. Especially is this true of the great ocean subdivision known as the "North Atlantic." With its dependent gulfs and seas, this ocean covers an area of something like 18,000,000 square miles, about one eighth of the total sea-surface of the globe. Commercially its importance largely exceeds that of all other oceans. Lying as it does between the great civilized continents, Europe on the east and America on the west, its commerce is as a hundred to one when compared with that of larger and more remote seas. For this reason it has been more thoroughly explored than any other ocean-tract, and its phenomena of tides and currents, winds and temperatures, depths and shallows, are better known.

The Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy has always been in the front rank of investigation. Struggling from the first with meager appropriations, it has nevertheless contributed its full share to the world's knowledge of this great highway of civilization.

Among the most creditable of its recent undertakings is the publication of monthly pilot

charts, showing not only the meteorological conditions that may be looked for with reasonable certainty, and the more or less regular variations of currents, but all the obstacles, floating wrecks and the like, of which any trustworthy intelligence can be obtained. To these are added what may be termed the eccentricities of natural phenomena, such as cyclones, water-spouts, the appearance of whales, etc. The course taken by all exceptionally severe storms is noted, and, as the charts are of a convenient size (24 x 30), they can be easily kept for reference in a drawer or in a portfolio, and thus afford a highly valuable record of the sea and its mysteries, for the benefit of navigators.

A single instance may be cited: The collision between the steamers "Thingvalla" and "Geiser" is among the most startling of recent disasters. If the captains of those vessels had followed, even approximately, the courses plotted for transatlantic steamers on the pilot-chart for August, both vessels might have been still afloat, and the hundred and more persons that went down with the sinking ship might yet have been alive.

The monthly issue of the pilot-chart is on "Mercator's projection," so called, and includes the whole area between the sixtieth parallel of north latitude and the equator. The preparation of each edition involves three printings, namely, the "base,' ""the blue data," and the "red data."

I. The base may be termed the constant of the chart. It is printed with black ink, and includes only the permanent features of sea and shore. Coast-lines, islands, and the like, are clearly marked, also the general set of currents, the compass-card, explanatory tables, storm-cards, etc. The parallels of latitude and longitude divide the whole into squares of ten degrees on a side, and these again are subdivided into what are known as oceansquares," of five degrees each. To avoid confusion of lines, these smaller squares are not shown, but they are easily plotted by quartering the large parallelograms.

II. The "blue data," which are printed directly over and upon the permanent data, consist mainly of a meteorological forecast for the month following the date of issue. There are also included the principal sailing-routes and steamship-routes recommended for the month. These routes vary from month to month, according to well-established laws. Thus, in the summer months, the probable southern limit of icebergs is tolerably well known, and the steamer-routes are carried well southward of the danger-line. So in regard to the ordinary sailing-routes, it is probable that any vessel following the sailing directions of the pilotchart will shorten her voyage by days or hours, according to the length of the trip. These sailing-routes are plotted from the logs and special reports of vessels, which have been accumulating in the Hydrographic Office since

her can of course never be known. The dotted red line that represents her course on the pilotchart is only one of many that cross and recross one another in all directions.

Wide as the ocean is, not a year passes without mysterious disappearances. Many of them are doubtless due to collisions with "derelicts," as they are termed by the Hydrographic Office, or with some of the many other drifting obstacles recorded by the “red data" of the pilot-charts.

The headquarters of the Hydrographic Office are in Washington, but the branch-office in New York, under the management of Lieut. V. N. Cottman, U. S. N., bears a most important part in the active work of the bureau. This office occupies by courtesy a corner of the Maritime Exchange, situated on the lower floor of the great Produce Exchange building. Perhaps no better place could be found to keep the bureau in touch with the great shipping interests of the world. To the Maritime Exchange almost every ship-owner, captain, and underwriter goes on business or to give and receive information, and in this way many valuable facts are secured at the latest possible moment before going to press. It is somewhat humiliating that such an important and beneficent Government work should be carried on in such narrow quarters; but, on the other hand, it is a high compliment to its usefulness that a great business organization like the Maritime Exchange should freely make room for it, where space is cramped at best, and where every square foot has a money value.

The official records show that during the year 6,739 vessels were visited; nautical information was furnished to 83,345 masters of vessels and others; 10,397 pilot-charts were gratuitously distributed, and 3,601 special detailed reports on the subject of marine meteorology were forwarded for use in the preparation of the pilot-charts.

The practical value of the branch-offices has led to their establishment in other seaports, and they are now in operation at Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. Every year there are between 5,000 and 6,000 lives lost at sea, and, while with the increase of commerce this average is not unlikely to be maintained, the Hydrographic Office is engaged in a noble work in reducing the chances of disaster.

The popular notion that sailing-vessels are being driven from the seas by steam competition is said by good authority to be erroneous. The sailing-tonnage of the world is, and probably always will be, nearly or quite double that of steam. It is not generally realized that, in spite of the long period of depression to which the American merchant marine has been subjected in consequence of the war for secession and because of congressional indifference, the tonnage of the United States is second only to that of Great Britain, and nearly double that of any other nation.

The publication of the pilot-charts was begun in December, 1884, and they have made their way by mere force of merit into the chartrooms of all nations. The co-operation of the Signal Service and of the Naval Bureau was cordially given, and merchant-captains were quick to recognize the value of the undertaking, and became at once willing contributors to the stock of general information.

None of the other maritime nations have as yet attempted to follow the example of the United States in the issue of pilot-charts. That they will sooner or later do so is to be expected, but at present the United States Hydrographic Office may be pardoned for a reasonable degree of pride in its unique and original work.

AUSTRALIA, a continent surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, forming a part of the British Empire. The areas of the colonies occupying the Australian continent, with that of the neighboring island of Tasmania and the colony of Fiji, and their estimated population at the close of 1886, are as follows:

In Vic

The estimated population of Australia and Tasmania on Jan. 1, 1888, was 2,943,364. In the whole of Australia the number of persons to the square mile is less than one. toria it is 11-79; in New South Wales, 3.37; in Tasmania, 5:40. The total excess of arrivals over departures by sea for the whole of Australasia (including New Zealand) in 1887, was 64,856, showing a decrease as compared with the previous year of 5,671. The excess was greatest in New South Wales, where it was 23,516, whereas in South Australia the departures exceeded the arrivals by 2,384. At the present rate of increase the population of the Australian colonies in the year 1900 will be 5,000,000.

The aggregate revenue of the Australasian colonies in 1885 was £23,750,000, and the aggregate expenditure, £25,250,000. In twelve years the revenue had increased 94 per cent., while the population had increased 54 per cent. The total debt was £70,250,000, or £3 38. 9d. per head of population. Between 1851 and 1886 the value of the gold mined in all the colonies was £324,000,000, of which Victoria produced £217,000,000.

Agriculture. The census tables show that 31 per cent. of the people of Australasia from whom statistics could be collected (about 40 per cent.), are engaged in agricultural occupations, while 31 per cent. follow manufacturing and mining, 10 per cent. are employed in trade and transportation, 17 per cent. in professional