Distance moved by load

end in inches.

The fourth and fifth columns have been calculated with a slide rule, and the third significant figure omitted.

To obtain the general relations between the load and the other quantities we must plot these quantities on squared paper, using a load base. This has been done in Fig. 8.

The line GLC is the driving force line (lifting), and DH the same when lowering; that is, the ordinates from the base to these lines represent the several values of the driving force. Similarly, the curve BF gives the mechanical efficiency at the different loads, and as the mechanical advantage = the mechanical efficiency multiplied by a constant (VR), the same

friction is represented by M N, and therefore NC represents the friction. From this we see that the vertical intercept between the line G C, and that through N and the origin, represents the friction. Now friction always opposes motion, and consequently when the machine is running backwards, friction is still opposing motion, that is, it is trying to prevent the machine from running backwards, and is therefore assisting the driving force. Consequently, the actual driving force applied by the hand while the machine is running backwards equals the driving force without friction minus the friction. The difference be tween this expression and the last equation is twice the friction. Hence the vertical intercept between the lines G C and D H represents twice the friction at the particular load in question. For example, at the load D M 112 lbs., the intercept HC represents twice the friction. Hence bisect any intercept and we get the friction at that load. The points of bisection will lie on the line through N and the origin.

=

This shows how the effect of friction may be got rid of, should such be required. The line through N and the origin may be called the ideal driving. force line.

It is often stated in text books that a machine will not run backwards of its own accord if its efficiency be less than 50 per cent.; but the fact is seldom demonstrated so that the junior student can appreciate it.

Returning to Fig. 8, we have seen that the line through N and the origin (the ideal driving-force line) bisects the vertical intercepts between D H and G C. Let us pass to a machine which is less efficient than the one just considered, but one in which the same driving-force and load relationship holds. This will necessitate the velocity ratio being greater than (5), which is that of the machine just considered. The friction being greater than before, the line through N will be lower than in Fig. 8, and consequently the line D H will have a much less slope, the point H being considerably lower.

If we carry the argument still further the line DH will eventually fall entirely below the base line, indicating that a negative driving force must be applied to compel the machine to run backwards; as we actually find in the screw jack and the endless screw.

Now consider the case in which the point H has fallen to M. The machine will run backwards with a load D M with no driving force (positive or negative). The corresponding point N must be half-way up M C, or in other words, the friction NC is half the driving force M C, and consequently that portion of the driving force which is doing useful work in lifting the load is MC MN That is, of the whole driving force M C, half of

=

that reqd. to that reqd. to lift load without + friction

=

overcome

friction.

The first term on the right we have already found to be 02 load. Substitute the different values of the load in this term and plot them in Fig. 8. We then get the line passing through N, and the origin. Then with the load of 112lbs. represented by DM, the actual driving force is represented by MC, and the driving force required to lift the load WITHOUT

2

it is spent in doing useful work and half in overcoming friction; therefore the efficiency of the machine is, or 50 per cent. NM C M apply a negative driving-force to run the machine backwards; that is, it will not run back of its own accord. At the same time, if H drops below M, N will drop below the middle point of M C, and the useful driving-force, M N, will be less than half the total M C, or the efficiency will be less than 50 per cent.; hence the machine will not run back of its own accord if its efficiency is less than 0.5.

If now the point H drops below M, we shall have to

T

PORTENTS AUGURAL.1

HERE are several reasons why the writings of Mr. H. G. Wells find many readers among schoolmasters. He has passed through the same mill as themselves and knows the intensity of the pressure between the upper and nether stones. As similar circumstances tend to the development of like characteristics and interests, they find themselves attracted by what Mr. Wells says, whether it be a direct expression of opinion in a didactic essay or the utterance of one of his characters. His incisive style, independent thought, and fertile imagination unite to command their appreciation and create a desire to emulate him.

For these reasons, and because the development and improvement of the human race is largely a question of educational procedure, we do not hesitate to direct the attention of our readers to the most recent book of this author. "Anticipations is a serious attempt at prophecy which places Mr. Wells among our philosophers and assures him a high reputation as a perspicacious student of human nature and affairs.

In Hebrew history a man is described as a prophet for one of two reasons; either because he foretold future events, or else, as when Ezekiel prophesied to the dry bones, by reason of his exhortations. Mr. Wells must be placed among the prophets on both these accounts, for he not only diagnoses the future, but makes it clear, even to the wayfaring man, how possible dangers may be averted. With an intimate knowledge of modern science and the teachings of Darwin and his school, supplemented by a good working acquaintance with the histories of the great peoples of the earth, Mr. Wells applies his scientific imagination, having throughout a careful regard to modern tendencies, to the task of unfolding the lines along which mankind will evolve and what will probably be the distribution, divisions, and distinguishing characteristics of the people living in the year 2,000.

It is perhaps a little unfortunate that Mr. Wells has already written "When the Sleeper Wakes" and "Tales of Space and Time," not only because many readers will at first imagine "Anticipations" is another scientific romance, but more especially since he has found it necessary to modify some of his previous beliefs as to the dominant section of humanity in the years to come. A prophet, to carry conviction-with the mass, that is-must be dogmatic and insistent. Yet this very failure to impress the crowd will be itself a great attraction for thinking persons. "Here," such a reader will

say, "is an earnest effort to find the truth."

It would be out of place for us to attempt to sketch, even roughly, the varied contents of Anticipations." But since the effective rulers of the New Republic are, it is argued, to be the

64

suitably educated members of the race, it will be interesting to note what, in view of the trend of things, "suitably educated" means. The trained capables of the year 2,000 will be

a great inchoate mass of more or less capable people engaged more or less consciously in applying the growing body of scie tific knowledge to the general needs, a great mass that will inevitably tend to organise itself in a system of interdependent

educated classes with a common consciousness and aim . . . .

What will fit men to take their places among the elect at the beginning of the twenty-first century? Mr. Wells never leaves his reader in any doubt. It is, in a word, thorough, sane education:

The necessary condition to the effective development of the New Republic is a universally accessible, spacious, and varied educational system working in an atmosphere of efficient criticism and general intellectual activity. Schools alone are of no avail, universities are merely dens of the highest cramming, unless the schoolmasters and schoolmistresses and lecturers are in touch with and under the light of an abundant, contemporary, and fully adult intellectuality.

There is, however, urgent need of an absolutely new type of school-a school that shall be at least so skilfully conducted as to supply the necessary training in mathematics, dialectics, languages and drawing, and the necessary knowledge of

Describing the education of the future as he does, it was inevitable that Mr. Wells should give his estimate of our modern school system. His verdict is far from flattering. He never, we think, merely vituperates; his censures always breathe of an earnest desire to bring about an improved condition of things. Not only when treating of modern education, but throughout, the book is strong food for men, and to such adults it is certain to prove a tonic, even though it should be an unpalatable one.

We have, perforce, confined our attention to one aspect only of this message to struggling humanity, yet there can be no doubt that all the subjects of the author's prophesyings will interest teachers, while the charm of his English, the throbbing, living appeals to the wise reader's reason, and the triumphant march of his descriptive passages, will much more than repay the expenditure of time demanded by the perusal of the book.

C

(1) The account given of "Commercial Education" in the German Empire is quite misleading. Compulsory attendance at continuation schools in Prussia is a matter of local option, and is the exception, not the rule. Pupils of intermediate modern schools, when destined for business, do not, except in isolated cases, pass to higher mercantile schools. The fact is that the modern schools themselves keep in view the requirements of commercial life. Higher mercantile schools so-called are to be found in only three towns of Prussia, viz., Cologne (2nd grade), Frankfort o/M. (1st grade), Aix-la-Chapelle (1st grade). Saxony, on the other hand, does provide a very fair number of "commercial schools" of a more pronounced type than the Realschule, and continuation schools with compulsory attendance are to be found throughout the kingdom. Much is made of the regulations of the Bavarian Government relating to "commercial" teachers; the truth is that their application is so limited that they afford no indication whatever of the qualifications of masters in German commercial schools. More accurate treatment is accorded to France. The patent omission is the explanation of the attractiveness of the twelve "superior" schools of commerce. It is well known that their roll-call is a vastly exaggerated measure of the genuine demand for higher commercial instruction, that in fact the "superior" edifice would shrink to perhaps a tenth of its present dimensions were it to lose the exceptional privilege relatively to military service. The author makes no mention of the "Ecoles Pratiques de Commerce" (under the Ministry of the Industry and Commerce) which are to be found in a large number of French towns. Much useful information is given us in connection with the United States and Japan. dealing with the United Kingdom is comprehensive and accurate.

The part

(2) With regard to the future organisation of our commercial education, the following proposals are made:-(a) The creation of commercial sides at higher elementary schools. We imagine that the boys from 12 to 14 years of age will have to be somewhat precocious, if they are to make much of the ambitious curriculum that embraces modern languages, book-keeping, commercial geography, and object lessons on trade products, simplified economics, elementary mathematics, science, drawing, shorthand, "business training." (b) The further formation of evening continuation schools for boys employed in offices. (c) The bifurcation

1 "Commercial Education in Theory and Practice." By E. E. Whitfield, M.A. (Methuen & Co.)

of the upper division of intermediate schools into a commercial and an industrial section. (d) The creation of a modern department without bifurcation in first-grade schools. (e) The establishment of institutes of commerce with a three-years' course for boys of 16 years of age and upwards. Why should not the first-grade school provide this training? (f) The establishment of post-graduate (sic) courses, such as the School of Economics provides.

(3) The third portion of the book is made up of diffuse talk and a patchwork of quotations. But it contains much that is suggestive to teachers.

The most valuable feature of the book is the ample bibliography furnished on the various topics discussed.

By "commercial education," say Messrs. Hooper and Graham in the second book' under notice, "we mean a practical education suited to the needs of the present day, and calculated to fit young people intended for business careers for the work they will have to perform, and to better equip for the work those already in business." This definition begs the whole question of the curriculum; it assumes at once that it is the practical course of study, such as the authors lay down without any appeal whatever to psychology, that is best calculated to fit people for business. It is this very contention which is rebutted by many schoolmasters who cling to school traditions. In the interests of commercial education we wish that the authors had gone more deeply into the matter, and had presented us with something more convincing than their insistence on the educational aspect of a commercial curriculum.

Five essentials are given for a course of higher commercial education, commercial education, following the ordinary secondary-school course:-Modern Languages, Commercial Practice, Study of Materials, .Principles of Commerce, Commercial Law. The methods of study of the various subjects falling under these groups are discussed.

Under "Modern Languages" we are urged to abandon our "trifling" attitude, to do our work thoroughly and to pursue our methods educationally, bearing in mind that the tongue must be trained equally with the ear and the eye. To this excellent advice a useful addition would have been the sketch of a syllabus for commercial schools, showing how far commercial requirements necessitate a supplement to the ordinary literary pabulum. It is right that our attention should be drawn to the demands made by Eastern markets on a knowledge of Oriental languages. We are shown what the Universities of Berlin, Paris, and Vienna have done to meet the want; but the authors seem evidently to be ignorant of the existence of the School of Oriental Languages attached to the Imperial Institute in London. The "Commercial Practice" course, as described by Messrs. Hooper and Graham, co-ordinates the study of the machinery of business, book-keeping,

1 "Commercial Education at Home and Abroad." By Frederick Hooper and James Graham. (Macmillan & Co.)