though an economist is not necessarily a good historian, no good general history can possibly be written without a knowledge of economics. Mr. Colby's address is "University Heights, N.Y.," but he can descend to school level without inconvenience to himself and his readers: his facts are well chosen, admirably arranged, expressed in simple and sensible language, and are above the usual standard of accuracy. His book needs revision-all first editions do-and it would be vastly improved if it were equipped with the teaching apparatus usual in American manuals of history. In price, size, and general get-up, it invites comparison with the "European History of Prof. G. B. Adams, of Yale. On the whole the bibliographical side-notes in the latter book— very ill balanced by Prof. Colby's sedimentary bibliography-incline us to give it precedence as a teacher's book, while the greater fulness of Prof. Colby would make it a more complete class-book. Both are a great deal too casual in their terminology, and would expose their users to the danger of Mr. Evans's recent strictures in these columns, and both need some slight adaptation for use in the British Isles. But if we were looking out for a text-book of General History for class use, and were allowed to adopt more than one, Prof. Colby's would certainly be among the chosen. We should be grateful to Mr. Anderson for his suggestions and help in teaching, but we should hesitate to incur the responsibility of placing his book in the hands of boys and girls in their teens. And we cherish the belief that there are some other American manuals of General History, not kept in stock over here, to which the American Agency might well direct its attention.

COLLEGE COURSES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.1

ΤΗ

HE educational pessimist should study the Specimen Courses of Instruction for Training Colleges suggested by the Board of Education," recently published. The days of the old wooden curriculum which prescribed in detail the subjects to be studied by students in all training colleges are numbered. The man of science is abroad. Instead of employing his time. in concocting weird "notes of lessons" on subjects of which he was more or less profoundly ignorant, the teacher in training to mould the minds of our future workers is henceforth to be shown "(a) how to encourage thoughtfulness, originality, inquisitiveness, and observation in children; (b) how children may be induced to find things out for themselves, and so to help in the development of their own character and education; (c) that lecturing is not teaching; and (d) that education means the training of the mind, not the storing of the memory."

1 "Specimen Courses of Instruction for Training Colleges suggested by the Board of Education." London.

1901.

With these objects in view, the syllabuses of the subjects which engage the attention of students in training colleges-it is almost unnecessary to add "for elementary school teachers," since such institutions for secondary schoolmasters are almost unknown-have, in the hands of the recent Committee, undergone a complete metamorphosis. The directions which are given respecting the teaching of mathematics and science show clearly how profoundly the missionary efforts of Professors Armstrong and Perry have influenced the authorities. Now the future elementary schoolmaster is to be encouraged to familiarise himself with the use of logarithms, the slide rule, with squared paper and the plotting of curves. Euclid is to be dethroned, and we are to have in his place a practical introduction to geometrical concepts by way of an experimental demonstration of the properties of triangles, quadrilaterals, circles and other figures. Closely linked to a mathematical training on these rational lines there is to be careful instruction in the "research" method of teaching science. The laborious learning of scientific facts by rote, which is worse than useless since it eclipses the true function of science in education, is to be displaced by a practical introduction to the method of science, the plan of answering new questions which present themselves by a carefully planned experiment skilfully arranged with this object in view.

But the influence of the scientific method is by no means confined to the instruction the scholastic tyro is to receive in mathematics and science. Modern languages are to be treated as living languages, and success will be gauged by the power the student develops of expressing himself in the foreign tongue, whether by writing or speaking. History is, in these specimen courses, something quite distinct from a mere chronicle of events and their dates. Students are to study some of the great movements of medieval and modern European history, to be taken on the widest lines, with the object of making a framework of historical ideas for later detailed study. So, too, in literature, the goal towards which the lecturers and tutors are to strive is "to stimulate interest and furnish a preparation for the appreciation and study of literature, the general idea throughout being to "direct and encourage the wider reading of English classics."

There are also alternative courses. For instance, the course for an urban college for women differs from that considered suitable for a country college. One, at least, of the suggestions we find in these specimen curricula is a little utopian. In one place it is stated, "the subjects studied should be chosen as far as possible with reference to what are likely to be the student's special requirements;" and this in face of the fact that the student has, by answering advertisements or by the recommendation of the college authorities, to secure a post where he can. A student may be able to tell in what class of school he would prefer to teach were all conditions equally attractive, but so long as the best salaries are to be obtained under the

large urban school-boards most teachers will prefer to teach in them, if they can manage it; in other words, in face of the competitions of the marketplace it is impossible to tell "what are likely to be the student's special requirements."

To the educationist interested in the welfare of secondary education-and is there one who is not?-there is something saddening about the study of this official publication. How long must we wait for well equipped colleges designed to train secondary-school teachers for their life's work?

S

CAMBRIDGE CLASSICS.1

HILLETO is still a name to conjure with in Cambridge, and few indeed have reached the Classical Tripos without copying some of his versions into their notebooks. It has long been felt that a collection of his work would be well worth making, not only for the old pupils who still cherish his memory, but for all who are interested in fine scholarship. This volume will bear out the high reputation which Shilleto enjoys, and will increase the regret of his admirers that he left so little completed work behind him. At the same time, his work had not the same value in all departments. In Latin verse he has nothing of Calverley's magic, his style is correct, but sometimes prosy or even unnatural. The hexameters have not the vigour and variety of Prof. Jebb's; the lyrics are somewhat disappointing; the elegiacs lack brightness and point. Shilleto is at his best in a description like that from Scott on page 276; the plain style suits him. Of his Latin prose, the most satisfactory pieces are terse and condensed, not exactly Tacitean, yet reminding one more of Tacitus than of Livy. The Latin prose, however, could be equalled by others, and there are who have done better. But Greek is his true province. If Germans in Greek are sadly to seek, Shilleto was not. The iambic versions, despite some obvious faults, are distinguished: if there are rather too many resolved rhythms, if there is some obscurity, there is often the happy phrase, and always the sense of what is possible and what is impossible. Shilleto can be daring :

Great king, within this coffin I present
Thy buried fear.

ὦναξ φέριστε, συντεθαμμέινον δέος

τὸ σὸν στέγει τόδ' ἄγγος.

But is not his daring justified? He has covered a very wide range of subjects in the selections, and his power of expression is equal to them all. Yet he does not succeed in creating a distinct style, or even in imitating the style of one of his models to a

nicety. The effect, however, is pleasing, and always

dignified. Now and then we feel inclined to

1 "Greek and Latin Composition." By Richard Shilleto, M.A. (Cambridge University Press.) 7s. 6d. net.

question a detail: as ews Kλue (p. 31), which ought surely to be ws Kλún; obd'àσkóñois (p. 13) appears to mean the opposite of what it is meant for; and there are other obscurities in the same piece. The only other Greek metre he attempts is the anapastic dimeter, which he is apt to make monotonous (the piece on p. 59 is four stanzas of four lines each), but his phrasing is happy enough. But the Greek prose is his glory; and here it is hard to say whether the strong historical pieces after Thucydides, the flowing oratory, or the bright dialogue is more. to be praised. His instinct for Greek prose is unerring, his power equal to all difficulties; he has a fine sense of proportion and rhythm, and the tact to seize on essentials and ignore accidents. One of the most striking pieces is a short extract from Bolingbroke which is placed last of all. We may extract one sentence: Corruption serves to oil the wheels of government, and to render the administration more smooth and easy:" dwpodokia καθάπερ τὸ ἔλαιον τοῖς τροχοῖς οὕτω καὶ αὕτη συμφέρει τη πολιτείᾳ ὥστε εὐτροχώτερον καὶ λειότερον προϊέναι. Let him who hesitates about buying read the dialogue on p. 176 between Alciphon and Euphranor, and he will hesitate no longer.

"1

We have nothing but praise for the late Mr. Neil's edition of the "Knights of Aristophanes,' although the editor's death prevented his putting the final touches to his work. Had he lived, he would certainly have enlarged the introduction, which at present is little more than a sketch; and he might have added somewhat to the notes on the latter part of the play. Yet even so this stands alone amongst the editions of Aristophanes for its combination of taste, learning and humour. A German critic who has written on Aristophanes clearly catalogues the qualities which the editor ought to have; and at the end of the list we read, "Fünftens: er muss Spass verstehen." His compatriots as a rule do not "Spass verstehen," ingenious as they are in hunting out parallels; nor do they always understand Greek or the Greek metres as they might. But every page of this commentary shows that Mr. Neil, whilst not neglecting the mint and anise and cummin, had a critical and linguistic acumen which places him in the front rank of scholars. His appendix on the uses of ye, which reduces that much-abused particle to rule and order, will be a revelation to many; but there are many short notes which bring out a new point in a conclusive manner. He is unerring in his sense of the associations of words, so important and so often neglected. Thus, to take a few examples out of many, he points out that Kaкodaíμw is playful, poor devil" (7), suggests that eveo was a nursery word (51), explains the artificial connotation of words in euua, (278), distinguishes Kaтà Kuμa, of gay and confident speed, from Kar' oûpov of carelessness

66

(432). His philological knowledge is also wide

and sound, so that he can often correct a mistaken derivation and suggest a new one. He is careful

1"The Knights of Aristophanes." Edited by R. A. Neil. (Cambridge University Press.)

IOS. net.

to draw attention to the niceties of rhythm, and in another appendix discusses the effect of tragic rhythm in comedy. He gives further many excellent translations, and not a few apposite quotations from English plays. Two points which he touches on in several places are of more than usual importance: the question of the Old Attic dialect and that of Old Attic religion. In study. ing this play from another point of view, we had noticed the peculiar place taken by Poseidon, as the god of old-fashioned or humble folk; Mr. Neil lays stress on this, pointing out that the oath by Poseidon is especially strong (338), and that he is the Tory god (144, 551) as opposed to the democratic Athena. He also feels a solemnity in the ending of TETTIyopopas and such words (1331), τεττιγοφόρας and notes the "solecism el with the subjunctive (698). Both these subjects might have been well treated at length in appendices; but Mr. Neil had probably not quite realised their meaning. Poseidon was the god of the old inhabitants of Attica, and as such held ground with the great nobles and with the country folk alike; and the "solecism," together with other dialectic usages and forms which are often set down to epic influence, were doubtless again the Old Attic dialect, which was akin to Aeolic, the common source of Attic and epic. We see these preserved in tragedy and common or rustic speech, just as thou survives in English for solemn adjurations and on the lips of the peasant. In a few points we must differ from Mr. Neil. If what we have just suggested is true, his note on 698, which commends Cobet's " corrections" of "solecisms," is wrong. We cannot agree with his explanation of Báλe (1151); or of ei μh · γε in line 185, where the retort seems to be, "Oh, yes, I'm a gentleman if I am not a low-born churl." On 1309 he appears to have missed a point; Neopárтn Navowvos would suggest such phrases Νεοφάντη ἡ Ναύσωνος as ̓Αχιλλεία Λυσικλέους ἔργον CIA ii. 793, 38.

A few

other additions might be suggested, but there is hardly a line one would wish to be taken away.

1 (1) "Leading Documents of English History together with Illustrative Material from Contemporary Writers and a Bibliography of the Sources.' By G. C. Lee. xvii.+609 pp. (Bell.) 7s. 6d. net.

(2) "Liberty Documents with Contemporary Exposition and Critical Comments drawn from various Writers." Selected and prepared by Mabel Hill, and edited with an Introduction by A. B. Hart. xxviii. + 458 pp. (Longmans.) 75. 6d. net.

(3)Select Documents of English Constitutional History." Edited by G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens. xviii. +555 pp. (Macmillan.) 10s. net.

The new trio is not so essential as the old trio for school teachers, because they are more special in their application; but one at least is a desirable possession for all those who recognise that history teaching based entirely on text-books and other secondary matter is bound to be unsatisfactory. We propose to describe the three, taking them in the order of publication, in such a way that our readers may be able to make up their minds which they will order first.

(1) Prof. Lee's volume is in many ways the most ambitious and the least satisfactory. It is a handsome octavo volume, containing not only 235 extracts ranging from Herodotus to the AngloBoer Convention of 1884, but also a classified bibliography of the sources which extends to 61 pages and 239 entries. The bill of fare is excellent, but the cooking, we regret to say, is abominable. This is a strong word to use, but it is justified by the facts. There is hardly a page without a mistake of fact or misspelling; and many of these cannot by any stretch of charity be ascribed to the printers. "Woolsey" for "Wolsey,"

," "Invasion of Briton," "Count [for Court] of the Great Mogul," ," "Inland" for "Ireland' such misprints are of common occurrence and are often, unlike these, of a kind which might seriously mislead the layman. Unfortunately, the mistakes are most elusive and most dangerous in the bibliography, which is planned on a scale that would make it extremely useful for the elementary student of English History if it were only trustworthy. There is no reason why a small bibliography should not be as sound in its way as the admirable work of Dr. Gross. As for the documents, they are a serviceable but somewhat arbitrary collection, mainly illustrating constitutional history; but they are carelessly transcribed. Messrs. Bell would do well, for their reputation's sake, to issue a full list of errata as soon as possible, and to insist that the book should be thoroughly revised. It would then become a valuable addition to our stock of source-books.

(2) Miss Hill's volume, despite its rhetorical and meaningless title, is a sensible and meritorious compilation. It contains about two dozen really "leading documents" of English and American history, including, for instance, King John's Magna Carta, Confirmatio Cartarum, the Commonwealth Constitutions and the American Declaration of Independence; and each is illustrated by both contemporary comment and later criticisms. (Messrs. Longmans will send a full table of contents on application.) The idea is decidedly good from a historical point of view; and the fact that its contents have been actually through the test of school use (at the State Normal School, Lowell, Mass.) should give pause to the scoffer who believes that a sixpenny "Curtis "will furnish all we need to ask" in history. But the execution is not so good as the presence of Prof. Hart's name on the titlepage would lead us to expect. The editors, although they must be acquainted with the windy style of writing so wittily exposed in Seeley's "Political Science," never condescend to explain

what they mean by "liberty"; they cite too many minor authors for their "critical comments"; and in some cases they seem to be very hard pressed for "contemporary exposition "-.g., when they use Burnet's remarks on the Abjuration Bill by way of exposition to the Act of Settlement, 1701. Much of the comment, contemporary and later, needs a deal of modification before it can be accepted, and there is a danger lest it should be taken for gospel by the lay teacher. Miss Hill herself is not above suspicion in point of scholarship. "Witanagemot" (P. 423) may be a misprint, but the statement that 'William III.'s only son" died in 1701 cannot be ascribed to the printer. In fact, the introductions to each chapter abound in statements which are not merely debatable, but demonstrably wrong. The general design, the texts, and the short bibliography are all good; but the book as a whole is not quite worthy of its beautiful printer's and binder's work.

(3) Messrs. Adams and Stephens have produced a thoroughly sound and serviceable book, which has long been needed. It contains 276 documents illustrating English constitutional history from 1080 to 1885; these are well selected, carefully printed, and provide, in a single handy volume, all that any but advanced students need have before them. It is every way more suitable for upper forms of schools and for pass candidates at the Universities and for general class teachers than the longer and more minute collections of documents edited by Doctors Stubbs, Prothero, and Gardiner for the Oxford Press; and we hope that conservatism and vested interests will not long delay its formal adoption by those who are responsible for pass-degree syllabuses in History. But - for here also there's a "but "-the book is preposterously dear at 10s. net; and there should be an index, if not an introduction and a bibliography.

It should be added that each of these books contains a first-rate table of contents, and that in each book the documents which were originally Latin or French are here translated. The first two books also contain fair indexes, and all are well printed and strongly bound.

DEPARTMENTAL ADVICE TO

TEACHERS.

THE Board of Education has published recently a number of reports and suggestions as to methods of teaching which ought not to be overlooked, for these publications contain some useful hints and opinions which, if teachers could be persuaded to assimilate them, would have considerable influence on the work of instruction. To make this easily possible we have selected a few passages referring to subjects of wide educational interest, and they are here reprinted. It is often stated that nothing which is said of teaching in public elementary schools can be of assistance to those whose work lies in the secondary school, but we do not agree with this view. Young children, whatever the social status of their parents, always set about the business of learning in much the same way. What His Majesty's Inspectors find true of the elementary school represents approximately what is

true of the lower parts of secondary schools. The student of education should therefore give consideration to educational work of all kinds, and judge their merits in the light of his own experience.

The first selections are from the "Revised Instructions applicable to the Code of 1901." It is there insisted upon that the nature and scope of the instruction which should be given in all schools should have in view the co-ordination of the whole of the school work. All the instructions have been drawn up to give more freedom of initiative to individual managers and teachers, and to secure a more complete adaptation of the instruction to local requirements.

An Annual Plan of Work.

At the beginning of each year there must be provided a plan of the work to be done in that year, which should set out, in outline, schemes of work in the different subjects. But if it is necessary in the interests of the scholars, the teacher is at liberty to deviate from any scheme either in the way of omission or enlargement or curtailment of its various parts. There should

also be provided note-books for containing brief summaries of

the chief oral lessons, a record book in which the head teacher may make brief entries showing the quality of work done throughout the school as tested by periodical examinations, and progress or mark books as to the individual conduct, application, and advance of the scholars. All these documents are the property of the managers, and in case of a change of teacher should be left at the school. It may be useful that some short record of the conduct of each scholar should be sent to the parents annually. But such records should not hamper a teacher in varying the work of the school, nor be so detailed as to demand an undue amount of clerical work.

The Objects and Scope of Instruction.

The object of the course of instruction is to convey information to the minds of children, and still more to stimulate them to acquire knowledge for themselves. To this end all lessons should be directed, and not merely the "object" lessons which are sometimes supposed to be the only effective method of attaining it.

Hitherto the course of instruction to be followed in all schools has been prescribed in minute detail, and practically little variety, even of method, was attempted by any teacher. In future, teachers must consider for themselves what shall be the scope of their instruction and what are the best methods to pursue. They may, if they choose, deviate little from the routine which has become a second nature, or they may introduce innovations both numerous and various. But whether they adopt either of these extreme courses or a judicious modification of both of them, they must remember that the responsibility is theirs.

The Inspector will judge the success of the instruction by noticing the conduct of the children during their ordinary lessons, whether the attention is keen or languid, whether the children are careful and industrious or idle or slovenly. He may put a few simple questions on the subject of the lesson and also on other parts of the school work. The exercise books, the records of previous examinations, and the papers worked by the children and revised by the teacher, will afford further material for forming an opinion. The Inspector may also give valuable help to the teacher in this way; for frequently small errors of various kinds strike a fresh observer though they escape the notice of the teacher, the keenness of whose apprehension may be somewhat blunted by familiarity.

The intelligence of the instruction depends on the method, and as methods aim at a certain end, the entire removal of the official examination which was once a determining factor in the

scheme of instruction will induce teachers to consider whether some change of method should be introduced. First, the children may be taught less and learn more, i.e., the teacher should endeavour to make the children observe and infer for them. selves, and should be less anxious to convey to their minds ready-made information. Progress may be slow, but it will be real and permanent, and the children will know how to gain information for themselves. Next, their memories should not be burdened excessively. Children learn by rote with great ease and imitate readily; the teacher, whilst making good use of this faculty, should endeavour to train the children not to commit words and phrases to memory without thinking of the meaning of what they repeat: he should train them not to learn mere strings of isolated facts but to notice the connection of one fact with another.

Discipline and Organisation.

The most effective agent for maintaining good discipline is the teacher's own example. Children readily recognise that their teachers are anxious to help them, patient, but yet determined to be obeyed. They notice also such details in their conduct as punctuality, order, neatness, gentle speech, and imitate what they see and hear. They observe little defects of conduct more keenly still, and with disastrous effect. It is on this account, therefore, that great stress is laid on matters that appear to be unimportant. The punctual, methodical performance of all the duties of the day, however trifling they may seem, is the result of good habits on the part of the teacher and the foundation of good habits in the scholars. If discipline were perfectly efficient, punishment would be unknown, for the result of efficient discipline is to engender the good habits which render punishment unnecessary. Order, diligence and obedience, which are only maintained by frequent punishment or the dread of it, do not constitute good discipline. Indeed, the infliction of punishment is, to some extent, a confession of defeat by the authority that inflicts it; for the object of discipline is to prevent the commission of faults. No punishment which excites the emotion of terror in a child should ever be employed. In an infants' school no punishment should be permitted which causes bodily pain. In schools for older children, corporal punishment should be discouraged as an ordinary expedient in boys' schools, and altogether in girls' schools. The punishment register, which is required in all schools, may serve some good purpose if it induces teachers to reflect occasionally on their methods, and to consider whether these really tend to the formation of the habit of good conduct.

The organisation of a school is good if the scholars are properly distributed, and if the teachers are qualified to undertake the special work prescribed for them in the scheme of instruction. In large schools the organisation is generally effective. In these the whole of the instruction in each class is generally assigned to one teacher, but some variation in this practice may be suggested. Teachers are not interested in all subjects alike, and therefore the work of the school may be distributed among the staff so as to assign the instruction in certain subjects to those teachers who have special knowledge of them. Subjects like mathematics (including arithmetic), the science of common things, literature, cannot be taught effectively by teachers who have merely a superficial knowledge of them.

The Teaching of Composition.

We have also before us a number of general reports by His Majesty's Chief Inspectors for different districts of England. In addition to detailed information as to educational progress in the parts of the country with which the reports are concerned

there are many conclusions as to the proper methods of teaching a variety of school subjects, arrived at by the inspectors after examining the work of a large number of schools. Reporting on the instruction in the north-central division of England, Mr. J. G. Fitzmaurice puts on record what Mr. Joad, the Inspector of Wolverhampton, says about the teaching of composition:

Composition is probably the most difficult of all the subjects taught in an elementary school. The youthful age of the children, the poverty of their vocabulary and their ideas, their small literary experience, and, above all, the fact that they hear so little correct English spoken at home, will always be obstacles in the way of good results in this subject. Moreover, the rules for writing good composition, other than those which relate to the syntax of the individual sentence, are necessarily somewhat vague, whilst rules for teaching others to write it appear to be almost non-existent.

It is by no means necessarily the case that commonplace subjects such as, "How I spent my last half-holiday," or "Describe the policeman's life," or "The town you live in," are the best for this purpose. They are wanting in interest for the children, and are often very hard to write about well. Subjects upon which the teacher can give the children interesting information, and can arrange that information under suitable heads, will give better results both from the point of view of good composition, and also as enlarging the general information and intelligence of the children. In the case of letter writing, the subject should be personal, and not academic or scientific in character. Circumstances should be imagined and statements made about them such as would be likely to call for the writing of a letter. It is manifestly absurd to write a letter beginning, "Dear mother, iron is a mineral and is dug out of the earth," and ending, "Saucepans and pckers are made of iron. I remain your affectionate son, &c." Yet the children are not infrequently required to do this, to teach them the "letter form," as it is said. The compositions, as finally presented, should neither be a mere list of haphazard, unconnected jottings, nor, though the ideas are the same, should they be expressed verbatim alike by every child. Both of these faults are common: the one shows too little teaching, and the other too much, leaving the children little scope for practising the formation of their own sentences.

Elementary Subjects.

A number of hints on the teaching of elementary subjects included in Mr. W. E. Currey's report for the eastern division of England, which were supplied to him by Mr. Wix, one of the inspectors in his district, are worth reprinting :—

In reading, is simultaneous work judiciously and sparingly used with a due appreciation of its disadvantages and dangers? Is sufficient time given to this most important of all subjects, so that after the initial difficulties have been overcome the children may go on to acquire habitual ease in reading, and so find out that what they at first thought an irksome task is the most delightful of all recreations?

Are children encouraged first to phrase naturally and spontaneously, in accordance with their notions of the meaning? Is "pattern" reading used only when necessary, and is the passage patterned by the teacher gradually increased in length according to the age of the scholars? Is explanation confined to detached scraps of knowledge and isolated “meanings,” or is it first directed to the whole meaning of the passage, so as to make children see that they can really learn something from reading, and so give them a love for it? Is a child told a difficult word at once, or encouraged and trained to face a difficulty for himself? If "silent" reading is used, is the teacher careful to question on it and ascertain its result?