it is only necessary to quote certain portions of the syllabus:- "The chief features of the coastal outline as related to those of relief." Some sort of a "list" may be requisite, but the point lies in the "relation;" eg., the Yorkshire coast from Flamborough Head to the Humber mouth and its hinterland; the west coast of Scotland, say, from Oban to Skye and its hinterland, with the causes of contrast in the two cases. "The winds and sea-currents, distribution of rainfall, the climatic contrasts, and the resulting agricultural contrasts”the agricultural contrasts and the causes thereof, say, of the plain of Lombardy and the Austrian Tyrol; of the Pacific coast of North America and the area of the great Basin; of the east and west sides of New Zealand. "The analysis of the positions of the great towns"-whereon the curious may read much to their enlightenment in Mr. Dickinson's able article on the great towns of France in the current number (July) of the Geographical Teacher.

Again, "Time need not be spent in elaborate mapdrawing. The answers . . . should be illustrated.. by simple diagrams." Here is sound common-sense. There is absolutely nothing harder-notwithstanding mechanical nostrums and mnemonic systems -than to draw from memory an elaborate, and at the same time good, map. Worse than all-from an examination point of view-it takes such an unconscionably long time! As for diagrams-the more the merrier, and the simpler the better. In a very recent examination we were so struck with the simplicity and lucidity of the diagram-map annexed that we make no apology for reproducing it in facsimile. Certainly the author-quite a young boy-will never see this copy of it. The

question bore on "agricultural contrasts and causes," though not in so many words, and the answer contained this sketch map by way of illustration. It is not, of course, given to everyone-even to London Matriculation students-to discourse glibly on "Trades" and "Roaring Forties," but much discourse can be dispensed with if the art of diagram-map drawing is cultivated.

We have said enough to show in what spirit we, at all events, think that Matriculation candidates should go to work under the new regulations. They must get down to principles, cause and

effect, effect and cause, and generally learn to apply their geography lessons.

But the most important part of this article remains. What books are there in the market which will show the way?

We have written so far synthetically; we will proceed analytically. Here is a selected list of books, to which we affix published prices, as pockets have to be considered in this matter as well as brains, years of latest issue by way of a guide (not always infallible) to up-to-dateness, and a few comments on the chief characteristics of the books specified. Choose, then, any one of the following in each set:

SET I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY. Herbertson's "Outlines of Physiography" (Arnold), 1901. 4s. 6d. The best of the newest books; stiff reading in parts; generally clear, i teresting, and well illustrated.

Mill's "Realm of Nature" (Murray), 1897. 5s.
Very interesting and accurate; good coloured maps.
Geikie's "Elementary Physical Geography" (Macmillan), new
edition, 1900. 4s. 6d.

Huxley's "Physiography (Macmillan), new edition, 1900. 6s.

Two "classics" very difficult to beat. Huxley's may be said to combine the synthetic and comparative methods of teaching geography, with the Thames as unit.

SET II.-GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. Chisholm's" School Geography" (Longmans), new edition. 1900. 3s. 6d.

Invaluable book; most excellent introduction of 6 pp. on physical geography.

Mill's "General Geography" (Macmillan), new edition, 1901. 3s. 6d.

Very trustworthy, as all Mill's works are.

Tarr and McMurry's "Series of Geographies" (Macmillan). 1900-1. 3 vols. [i. General; ii. North America; iii. Europe and other Continents.] 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. each. Plenty of detail, illustrations, maps of all sorts; American point of view. Mill's "International Geography" (Newnes), 1900. 155. Seventy authors, nearly all of whom have lived in the countries which they describe; an invaluable work of reference for a teacher of geography -Meiklejohn's "Comparative Method" (Holden). 27th edition, 1902. 4s. 6d.

To be read with discretion; method and arrangement very good.

SET III.-THE UNITED KINGLOM.

Green's "Short Geography of the British Isles " (Macmillan), latest edition, 1896. 3s. 6d.

Written on true geographical principles.

Herbertson's "Commercial Geography of the British Isles" (Chambers), 1900. IS.

Causes and consequences from cover to cover.

ON THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Two new books by "Nemo”—“The Making of the British Colonies" (Heywood), 1901, 28. od, and "The Harmony of the Empire" (Heywood), 1901, 55. -might be read with advantage.

We repeat, choose any one in each set, and you, sir or madam, who have to enter for the London Matriculation on the basis of an average school geography curriculum, or perchance to teach for the Matriculation on a "chapter ahead" qualification (which may be no fault of your own), will not go far astray. According to this, four books make the minimum; the irreducible minimum would be a book of the Chisholm type (Set II.), and of course an atlas.

We could say much more on this subject of books. There are, of course, others-for we are very far from claiming omniscience in such a matter-as good as those mentioned, though not better for the immediate purpose. Our list may be invidious, but it is not exclusive, and is not meant to be. We have, for instance, made no mention of the "Commercial Geographies" of Chisholm (Longmans, new impression 10s. and 2s. 6d.), of Mill (Pitt Press, 1901, Is. 6d.), and Adams (Hirschfeld Bros., 1902, 5s.)—all well adapted to the wants of the student who has a bent for "Applied Geography" -nor of the British classics, Geikie's "Scenery of Scotland" (Macmillan, 1901, 2s. 6d.), Ramsay's Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain" (Stanford, 6th Ed., 1894, 1os. 6d.), and Hull's "Physical Geology and Geography of Ireland" (Stanford, 1891, 7s.), which are indispensable if one has time to dig deeper into the geographical field; nor of Mackinder's new book, "Britain and the British Seas" (Heinemann, 1902, 7s.), which, given time, will probably become a classic for scientific geography. We think, however, that safety lies above.

But geographical books, it should be remembered, are constantly growing old. Advertisement is rife. It would, perhaps, be as well to suggest certain "tests" for application to any text-book or atlas which a candidate may have a mind to procure. In the first place, then, suspect a book without a date on the title-page; it may be all right. The odds are it is behind the times. Be assured that the date is not suppressed in your interest. Secondly, if it speak of the "Kong mountains" as still existing in Africa, of the Gulf-stream as the great determiner of West European climates, of Devon and Cornwall as still supplying great store of tin and copper to the world; if it spells Indian names with "oo" and "ee" and prints Burmah instead of Burma, Hoang-ho instead of Hwang-ho; if it does not devote proportionate space to the industries of the United States-in a word, if it is not up-to-date, have nought to do with it. Above all, beware of atlases (and text-books, too, for the matter of that) which are not strong on physical features, which print scaleless maps, which are not clear and distinct, which have defective registers, and still show Formosa as belonging to China.

Anyone who desires further information should read Mill's" Hints to Teachers and Students on the choice of Geographical Books for Reference and Reading" (Longmans, 1897, 3s. 6d.), and should take in The Geographical Teacher-the organ of the Geographical Association-published by Messrs. Philip and Son three times a year at Is. a time.

PHYSICAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS.

By THOMAS CHESTERTON.

Organising Teacher of Physical Exercises for the London School Board.

S

II. SWEDISH DRILL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISES. WEDISH exercises are those evolved from the system introduced into Sweden by Ling in the early part of the nineteenth century. These exercises were originally medical movements, and from them school and military gymnastics were evolved. For a considerable period the Swedes claimed originality for the Ling system in whatever form it was taught; but his later followers admit that the ideas were not new. In fact, they had undoubtedly originated from the works of an English anatomist (1794). Still, to Ling, the Swedes owe the systematisation of the exercises bearing his name, and to him is due the credit of making the work as perfect as possible, and adapting it to the training both of children and adults. Militarism was at the bottom of this system, and it has been altered and improved by Ling's followers from time to time to keep pace with modern physiological and anatomical science. Consequently, it has become so re-constituted as to bear but little resemblance to the form in which it was first presented.

The system of Swedish drill, as known in the schools of this country, is one of free movements only, and it is claimed for this system that it is based strictly on physiological lines, and that the exercises have been chosen for their gymnastic value, those only having been introduced which have been found to produce the best local and general effects. It is also claimed that scope is granted to the teacher in varying the exercises according to the general physique of the pupils. The exercises are calculated to develop the body harmoniously, and to counteract and remedy faulty growth and incorrect posture. The primary aim is to produce beneficial effects on the nervous system, the muscular system being considered of secondary importance. The system rightly discountenances spectacular movement, as having little effect on physical development. The movements are admirably progressive, commencing with the most simple, and culminating in vigorous and complicated exercises. This progression is so detailed that the simple movement of each limb or other parts of the body is strictly taken into account. Some authorities on the system totally disapprove of the use of movable apparatus-such as dumb-bells, wands, clubs, etc.-with the exercises, since the value of the exercises is lost by using such.

The exercises, according to the best Swedish authorities, are arranged as follow:-Preparatory movements, foot and leg movements, neck and trunk movements, arm movements, balance movements, shoulder-blade movements, abdominal exercises, lateral trunk movements, marching, running, jumping, and respiratory movements. The foregoing are called free standing movements, although

movements, without which the exercise loses its value. The system also disapproves of imitation, memorising, &c., as such tend to cause the work to become purely mechanical, while to some extent discipline is sacrificed. Music is conspicuous by its absence, the system positively condemning it on all occasions, contending that there are few gymnastic exercises which are rhythmical, and

hand in hand, while any number of pupils can be taught by one teacher. Being independent of elaborate apparatus for the proper execution of the exercises, the system is extremely practical. The exercises can be executed in the class-room, hall, or playground, provided sufficient space is available. Singing in conjunction with the exercises is rigidly forbidden, but it is encouraged

whilst marching. All movements must be performed with unerring accuracy, and each must be repeated a given number of times. Although every movement must be done by word of command according to some authorities, others say that the pupils may "judge their own time."

The system claims that exercises practised from ten to fifteen minutes daily throughout ordinary school life will be productive of important physical results. The exercises will take but little time from the lessons of the day, and will be attractive to the pupils of all ages, proving a great relief from nervous tension. They will not only be restful to the body, thereby promoting a proper circulation of the blood, and keeping the entire physical system in a vigorous condition, but they will promote good humour, cheerfulness, and a natural and healthy tone of mind. In short, the exercises will add much, not only to the health, but also to the happiness of the teachers and pupils, as they contain

has simplified and modified the system, either by applying music to the exercises, discarding some movements entirely and substituting others of a more attractive character, or introducing dumbbells, wands, &c. (which latter practice also obtains in a few training colleges for mistresses which have adopted the system), it has become difficult to know where the original system leaves off and the modernised one commences. In every instance where such innovations have been introduced, they have been thoroughly successful, and there is no inclination on the part of the instructors or class teachers to return to their previous methods; in fact, the improvements are daily on the increase, thereby insuring better results than formerly in every case.

One notable characteristic of the system is the multiplicity of Tables of Exercises, scientifically arranged, and generally known as "day's order." In these tables the exercises are claimed to be set

T

HE

By A. E. MUNBY, M.A. Felsted School.

to meet the requirements of school children of various ages. They contain those exercises which are to be done in one lesson, and nothing else. Such tables are more or less observed in schools which have adopted the system, as by their observance an accurate and effective display is possible, owing to the frequent repetition of the same exercises. The progression is very definite and rigid, both as regards the exercises in each table and the progress from table to table. Each table consists of from six to twelve exercises, according to the views of the compiler, commencing with movements of the lower extremities and terminating with those for the neck. Occasionally, tables are found in which the exercises occur in a contrary order, but such are the exception. After all that has been said on this point there are no two textbooks which contain identical tables, neither do any two professors agree as to the sequence of these tables.

The name Swedish Drill" is, in England, frequently misleading, the vast majority of people considering that any system, so long as performed as free movements, is Swedish. Hence a great deal of misunderstanding has been created. There are many excellent systems of free movements which are distinct from the Swedish, notably the German and Swiss. Still, the Swedish authorities maintain that, although a teacher may use free movements dissimilar from those taught in the Swedish system, and even use such appliances as dumb-bells, clubs, sceptres, wands, &c., the fact remains that the work is still Swedish.

The system of Physical Exercises taught throughout girls' departments of the schools under the School Board for London, and those of a few provincial Boards, is undoubtedly founded on the Swedish system; but, as nearly every instructor

so few workers in the field of practical physics have themselves failed to search for a suitable cell for laboratory work, that I have some hesitation in placing my opinions on paper.

Investigations upon primary cells, undertaken with the object of finding a really possible cell for continuous, heavy work, are often begun in hope and finished in dejection, and there is no question but that, when more than a few watts are required for anything like regular work, a dynamo is the only satisfactory solution. For occasional work of a rather heavy nature, and for the isolated individual work involved in a course of practical electricity, or in a piece of research, primary cells, however, are of the greatest value.

The selection of a cell suitable for a given purpose depends not only on the difference of potential between the poles and upon the internal resistance of the electrolyte, but also upon the prime cost, trouble involved in recharging, and cleanliness in use. In spite of the legion of cells which have been devised, there are comparatively few possessing claims to general use, and in every one zinc is found most suitable as the fuel or negative pole. The ideal cell would be one possessing a small internal resistance, giving a constant current even on short circuit, without waste on open circuit, requiring no amalgamation, containing no corrosive liquids, light in weight for its output, and having a negative plate and electrolyte easily replaced at short notice.

The cells which are most prominently before the public at the present time are the so-called DRY CELLS, which are of the Leclanché type, and have recently been greatly improved in the matter of internal resistance. The negative pole generally forms the exterior wall of the cell and the exciting fluid is absorbed in some indifferent compound, such as sulphate of lime. These cells have the ad

vantage of portability, are unbreakable and have nothing to spill. Many of them are also exceedingly efficient when new. They have the disadvantage of giving no indication of condition till used, often therefore failing at a critical time. They are generally somewhat expensive, and the wire usually attached to the zinc for connection is apt to be broken off if often bent, though these two last defects are absent in the Century Dry Cell, mentioned later. They are usually exhausted long before the zinc is consumed; and though some makers (e.g., of the E.C.C. Cells) allow half the cost on purchasing new cells when the old ones are returned, their great weight usually decreases the value of this advantage, owing to the cost of transit. There is a very large number of Dry Cells on the market, all very similar AMPÈRES. in construction. According to Mr. W. R. Cooper, out of nine types tested by him, the E.C.C., Hellesden, and Obach were the most efficient; the Century Cell, however, is not included in the list.

The chief advantage of WET over dry cells lies in the possibility of renewing the solutions and negative plates when these become exhausted; but if the labour involved in this process is anything but trifling, this advantage is much smaller than is generally supposed. For this reason, double-fluid cells and those containing zinc plates of peculiar form should be avoided if possible.

7

which is fairly dead-beat, and by the use of mercury cups, the time required for making each test and again completing the circuit did not average more than about twenty seconds. Naturally, the resistance in the external circuit was not constant owing to the rise of temperature, but since an alloy was used, and the cell itself decreased in resistance on account of the heating of the electrolyte, the error was probably smaller than might appear at first sight. The cells were not all of the same size, but were those most commonly used in a labora· tory. The E.C.C. was a No. 2, 65 cms. in diameter and 15 cms. high; the Century was the same size;

entury

5

Carsak

3

0

It is further generally essential. that cells employed should stand well on open circuit, in which respect dry cells generally behave properly, but many wet cells rapidly deteriorate when left unused. Since the kind of cell adopted must depend largely on the object for which it is to be used, it will be better, instead of generalising further, to attempt. to classify the requirements of the laboratory as follows:-(1) Large currents at low E.M.F. for a few hours continuous run for motor work, small lamps, electrolysis, &c. (2) Moderate constant currents for the isolated work of students. (3) Small, fairly constant currents for mirror galvanometer work, or the testing of battery resistance. (4) Intermittent currents for bell ringing, gas analysis work, &c.

Bichromate

Lalande Grove

On Short Circuit.

In order to gain an insight into the sustaining power of cells capable of giving fairly heavy currents, experiments have been made upon six cells for the purpose of this article, and the results are shown in the form of discharge curves (Fig. 1). As shown in this diagram, tests were made every half hour; first, with one ohm (a spiral of No. 24 platinoid wire) in circuit; then, without any interval of rest, on short circuit. A Stanley D'Arsonval testing instrument was employed

Fig. 1.

the Carsak the same size, allowing for the wall of the cell. The Bichromate was the ordinary one-pint bottle form, the Grove a half-pint cell in which chromic acid was used, and the Lalande, 7 cms. in diameter by 10 cms. high, internally, constructed as described below.

Turning now to a consideration of the cells in detail under their respective classes :

(1) Large currents for several hours.-The favourite cell for such work was, and still often is, the GROVE. The curve given by it shows that it bears a heavy call well, but its internal resistance is against it. Further, when nitric acid is used, it is most objec tionable unless placed in a good draught, and its initial cost and cost of maintenance are heavy. The Grove cell, however, has a higher E.M.F.