WHAT IS MEANT BY THE WORD "ARTESIAN."

The significance of the term "artesian" is discussed with great care by Mr. Myron L. Fuller of the United States Geological Survey in Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 160. While there is considerable diversity of practice there is nevertheless a general tendency to throughout the country have expressed their willingness to accept any definition agreed on by the majority of active workers on under

ground-water problems.

Discussing the original use of the term artesian (as applied to flowing wells first observed in the town of Artois, France), the use of the word in recent scientific literature, in Europe, and the present scientific and popular use of the term in this country, Mr. Fuller makes clear that no definite meaning can be assigned to the word artesian in a publication unless definition is given in the same paper. It is even found that the same writer employs it differently in different publica

tions.

The predominant scientific usage of the term is for all wells in which the water rises; in other words, for those exhibiting the hydrostatic or artesian principle. In popular practice it is applied, in addition to the uses previously mentioned, to deep wells in general, especially those in rock, and to a certain extent to any drilled wells yielding water of good sanitary quality.

After discussing the arguments for these various uses, Mr. Fuller gives the following definitions which were agreed on by the members of the Division of Hydrology of the Survey as the most expedient at the present time.

Artesian principle.-The artesian principle, which may be considered as identical with what is often known as the hydrostatic principle, is defined as the principle in virtue of which water confined in the materials of the earth's crust tends to rise to the level of the water surface at the highest point from which pressure is transmitted. Gas as an agent in causing the water to rise is expressly excluded from the definition.

Artesian pressure.-Artesian pressure is defined as the pressure exhibited by water confined in the earth's crust at a level lower than its static head.

Artesian water.-Artesian water is defined as that portion of the underground water which is under artesian pressure and will rise If encountered by a well or other passage affording an outlet.

Artesian system.-An artesian system is any combination of geologic structures, such as basins, planes, joints, faults, etc., in which waters are confined under artesian pressure.

Artesian basin.-An artesian basin is defined as a basin of porous bedded rock in which, as a result of the synclinal structure the water is confined under artesian pressure.

Artesian slope.-An artesian slope is defined as a monoclinal slope of bedded rocks in which water is confined beneath relatively impervious covers owing to the obstruction to its downward passage by the pinch

ing out of the porous beds, by their change from a pervious to an impervious character, by internal friction, or by dikes or other obstructions.

Artesian arca.-An artesian area is an area underlain by water under artesian pressure.

Artesian well.-An artesian well is any well in which the water rises under artesian pressure when encountered.

OCCURRENCE OF WATER IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. While the laws governing the occurrence of ground water in unconsolidated materials and in porous sedimentary formations are now generally understood, little has been written concerning the sources of supply for wells in the so-called crystalline rocks. For this reason, when an opportunity was presented in connection with an investigation made by members of the United States Geological Survey of the underground waters of Connecticut, special attention was given to the occurrence of water in such rocks. Mr. E. E. Ellis of the Survey has contributed a paper to the annual hydrologic report (UndergroundWater Papers, 1906) in which the general results of this investigation are set forth.

The water of the crystalline rocks occurs, so far as it can be secured by wells, wholly in joints, faults, or other fracture openings, the pores and schistosity planes being too close to permit active circulation. The water seems to occur largely in the vertical joints or faults, especially in the sheeted zones consisting of numerous crowded fracture planes. In Connecticut a common spacing betwen the surface joints is 3 to 7 feet, but in some cases they are much farther apart. At depths of more than 50 feet the space becomes greater owing to the dying out of subordinate joints.

The spacing of the horizontal joints is rather regular. In the first 20 feet below the surface they average 1 foot apart, for the next 30 feet from 4 to 7 feet, and in the following 50 feet they are from 6 to 30 feet or more apart.

The most favorable points for water are at the intersection of two or more of the joint systems, the circulation being often concentrated at these points.

It is impossible to foretell the succes or yield of a well in crystalline rocks, but the chances of a moderate supply are at least as good as 9 in 10. The character of the water obtained is in general excellent, both for domestic and manufacturing purposes, and is usually soft. Hills and places where the soil is thick are the most desirable locations for drilled wells. In general it is better to abandon a well and seek a new location if not sucessful when a depth of 250 feet has been reached, as the possibilities of a supply below this depth are much less than at shallower depths.

The average cost of 123 wells, averaging 108 feet in depth and yielding a mean of 12.7 gallons a minute, is $4.25 a foot.

TWO SPECIAL ALASKAN MAPS.

Ever since the discovery of gold placers on the Seward Peninsula in 1898 that general area has been as attractive to the public as was the Klondike in the spring of the previous year. Miners, operators, and investors have flocked into that part of Alaska and numerous towns have sprung up. The chief of these, in fact the metropolis of the north, is Nome. From a rough mining camp it has been rapidly transformed to a corporate city with its own government and most of the modern improvements and facilities that are found in cities of equal size in "the States."

A peculiar feature of the placers which have made Nome famous is the occurrence of beach deposits. These extend along the shore of Bering Sea in front of the present location of Nome for a distince of twenty miles. The value of the gold taken from these beach placers is estimated at no less than $1,000.000, but this is small compared with the value of gold taken from the nearby creek and bench claims, which have already produced $30,000 000 and are still adding to the world's wealth of yellow metal.

The importance of this region was early manifest. In 1899 the United States Geological Survey made a geologic and topographic reconnaissance of the southern part of the Seward Peninsula.

The data and maps published as a result of this expedition furnished valuable information to miners and investors, especially in regard to roads, ditches, available sources of water supply, and other features that are important in the economic development of mines. These maps lack, however. the details that are essential in maps used for such engineering purposes as making preliminary estimates, laying out grades and locations for future construction, etc., and it was to furnish additional data that a 'more detailed map of this region was made. It is published in two sheets called the "Nome" and "Grand Central” specials.

The Nome Special includes the area lying between 64° 25′ and 64° 40' latitude, and 165° and 165° 30' longitude. The Grand Central, Special includes the area between 64° 40′ and 65° latitude and 165° and 165° 30' longitude. These sheets are published on a scale of 1:62500, approximately 1 inch to the mile, with a contour interval of 25 feet, referred to mean sea level as a datum.

KANSAS ASSOCIATION OF MATHEMATICS TEACHERS.

The Kansas Association of Mathematics Teachers held one of the most successful meetings of its existence in Topeka December 26-27, 1906, under the direction of Prof. H. B. Newson of the University of Kansas acting president.

In accordance with a plan that the interest should center about the mathematics of the grades the following program was carried out: "Algebra as Now Taught in the High School,"

J. S. Carson, Wichita High School. "Mathematics of the Grades Exhaustive Rather than Extensive,"

T. P. Downs, Beloit,

"Algebra in the Last Year of High School,"

W. H. Ganett, Baldwin.

"The Extent of Arithmetic and Algebra in the Grades,"

"Mathematic versus Arithmetic,"

R. E. Hartsock, Pittsburg. Prof. H. B. Newson, Lawrence.

"Algebra from the Viewpoint of the College,"

Prof. C. H. Ashton, Lawrence.

The discussion resulted in the adoption of the following:

(1) Resolved, That it is the sense of this association that one half year of algebra should be included in the last year of the high school. (2) Resolved, That there should be a change for the better in the present state text in algebra.

The following committee was appointed to report at the next meeting on subjects to be eliminated from the text on Arithmetic in present use: Prof. C. H. Ashton, Univ. of Kas.; Supt. L. A. Lowther, Emporia; Chas. A. Wagner, Hutchinson; A. M. Bogle, Kansas City, Kas.; Miss Emma Hyde, Iola, and Miss Effie Graham, Topeka.

Many new subscriptions were received for SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS, the official organ of the association.

The officers for the coming year are:

SCIENCE AND

CHAS. A. WAGNER, Hutchinson, Pres.

A. M. BOGLE, Kansas City, Kas., Vice-Pres.
EFFIE GRAHAM, Topeka, Sec'y-Treas.

MATHEMATICS SECTION OF THE HIGH

SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE

TEACHER'S ASSOCIATION.

On Dec. 26, 1906, a meeting was held in the high school building at Williamsport, Pa., for the purpose of organizing a society for the improvement of teaching mathematics and science in the secondary schools of Pennsylvania. A call for such a meeting had been issued and sent to about 1,100 school people in the state. This call was signed by Professors Bartol and Owen of Bucknell University, Prof. Scheidt of Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster; Mr. Dysart of Pittsburgh Schools; Dr. Geo. Hull of Millersville Normal; Mr. Wallize, of Milton High School, Milton, Pa., and Jane Mathews' High School, Altoona, Pa.

There was not as large an attendance as we had hoped to have, but what the meeting lacked in numbers it made up in enthusiasm, and we hope from small beginnings greater returns.

A committee was appointed to draw up the Constitution which was submitted to those interested in the movement at a later meeting, this committee was composed of J. Mathews, Altoona, Pa.; Mr. Wallize, Milton, Pa.; Mr. J. F. Adams, Millersburg, Pa.; and Prof. Convers, Sunbury, Pa.

The following is the Constitution submitted:

1. Name: Science and Mathematics Section of the High School Dept. of the Pennsylvania State Teachers' Association.

2. Object: The improvement of the teaching of science and mathematics in Pennsylvania.

3. Membership: Members of the High School Dept. of the State Teachers' Association may become members upon application to the Executive Committee of the Section.

4. Organization: The direction of this action shall be in the hands of an Executive Committee of five members representing college, Normal school, and secondary schools.

5. This Executive Committee shall be chosen at a business meeting of the section, to be held at the time of the mid-year meeting of the High School Dept. JANE MATHEWS, Secretary.

ASSOCIATION OF OHIO TEACHERS OF MATHEMATICS

AND SCIENCE.

The fourth annual meeting of the Association was held in Chemical Hall, Ohio State University, Columbus, Dec. 27 and 28, 1906. President W. H. Wilson, University of Wooster, presided at the joint sessions and those of the mathematics section. Vice-president T. Otto Williams, Evarts High School, Circleville, presided over the science section.

The following papers were presented:

JOINT SESSIONS.

"Arithmetic as a Means of Impressing Chemical Facts," Prof. M. E. Kleckner, Heidelberg University.

"Do Mathematical Problems Make Physics Unpopular? If so, why?" Prin. H. M. Ebert, Elyria High School,

MATHEMATICS SECTION.

"Recent Pedagogical Movements in Mathematics in Germany," Prof. Arthur G. Hall, Miami University.

"Mathematics in Ohio Colleges," Prof. G. N. Armstrong, Oberlin

College.

"The Use and Abuse of Tests in Mathematics," Mr. C. J. Bowman. Canton High School.

"The College and the Teacher of Mathematics," Prof. Henry L. Coar, Marietta College.

SCIENCE SECTION.

"The Laboratory Workshop," Mr. Ralph W. Buck, Central High School, Xenia.

"Position of the Atomic Theory," Prof. Wm. Lloyd Evans, Ohio State University.

"Ions from the Physicist's Standpoint," Prof. J. A. Culler, Miami University.

"Ions from the Chemist's Standpoint," Prof. G. O. Higley, Ohio Wesleyan University.

Experiments and exhibits of home-hade apparatus were special features of the meeting. Prof. Evans performed a number of striking experiments in physical chemistry. Prof. Hillig, St. Johns College, Toledo, showed a simple experiment in electrolysis.