separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services; which not being descendible, neither ought the offices of magistrate, legislator, or judge, to be hereditary.

5. That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and distinct from the judiciary; and that the members of the first two may be restrained from oppression, by feeling and participating the burthens of the people, they should, at fixed periods, be reduced to a private station, return into that body from which they were originally taken, and the vacancies be supplied by frequent, certain, and regular elections, in which all, or any part of the former members, to be again eligible, or ineligible, as the laws shall direct.

6. That elections of members to serve as representatives of the people, in assembly, ought to be free; and that all men, having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with, and attachment to, the community, have the right of suffrage, and cannot be taxed or deprived of their property for public uses, without their own consent, or that of their representatives so elected, nor bound by any law to which they have not, in like manner, assented, for the public good.

7. That all power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority, without the consent of the representatives of the people, is injurious to their rights, and ought not to be exercised.

8. That, in all capital or criminal prosecutions, a man hath a right to demand the cause and nature of his accusation, to be confronted with the accusers and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favour, and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage, without whose unanimous consent, he cannot be found guilty; nor can he be compelled to give evidence against himself: that no man be deprived of his liberty except by the law of the land, or the judgment of his peers.

9. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

10. That general warrants, whereby an officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places, without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose offence is not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive, and ought not to be granted.

11. That in controversies respecting property, and in suits between

man and man, the ancient trial by jury is preferable to any other, and ought to be held sacred.

12. That the freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic government. 13. That a well-regulated militia, composed of a body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided, as dangerous to liberty; and that, in all cases, the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power.

14. That the people have a right to uniform government; and, therefore, that no government separated from, or independent of, the government of Virginia, ought to be erected or established within the limits thereof.

15. That no free government, or the blessing of liberty, can be preserved to any people, but by a firm adherence to justice, moderation, temperance, frugality, and virtue, and by frequent recurrence to fundamental principles.

16. That religion, or the duty which we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence; and, therefore, all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of all to practise Christian forbearance, love, and charity towards each other.

The constitution was framed to conform to the principles declared in the preceding. Bills of Rights have been prefixed to the constitutions of all the states then and since organised. In principle, they are all nearly the same. The Declaration of Rights is considered more sacred than the constitutional provisions for the government. The form of the constitution may be changed; but the political rights of man, as scheduled in the bill, are considered to be too sacred to be altered. All governmental decrees, whether constitutional or statutory, must conform to the principles set forth in the Bill of Rights.

The Virginia constitutional government of 1776, vested all powers in three departments; namely, the legislative, executive, and judicial: each distinct from the other, yet co-operative in the administration of affairs promotive of the common weal. About the same time, the other colonies were adopting constitutional governments. The following were the dates:-New Jersey, on the 2nd of July, 1776; Maryland, on the 14th of August, 1776; Delaware, on the 20th of September, 1776; North Carolina, on the 18th of December, 1776; New York in April, 1777; and Georgia in 1789.-These constitutions have been amended or revised from time to time; but with respect to the general principles of government, they remain the same. Rhode Island continued its charter government until 1842, when it adopted a constitution.

There were, at the formation of the United States' government of 1789, thirteen states; and, since then, there have been added to the Union twenty-one, eleven of which have been formed out of the territory held under the treaty of peace with Great Britain, of 1783. The other states have been formed out of the territories purchased or annexed by treaties. All of the new states have adopted constitutions, organising governments upon the same principles; viz., the legislative, executive, and judicial departments. Each of these branches, as common in most of the constitutions, we will briefly explain.

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.

The people, through the constitutional compact, stipulate, that the power of enacting laws shall be vested in the

legislative department of the government. This branch is composed of two separate assemblies, usually styled the "Senate" and "House of Representatives;" and unitedly, the "General Assembly," or the "Legislature." The senate is considered to be the most conservative, and consists of a less number of members than the House of Representatives-seldom more than one-third of that body. The senators are elected for a longer term than the representatives. The former are elected for two or more sessions; but the latter are never elected for more than one session. The representatives are nearer to the people, and more local than the senators, although both are elected by the people. A state is divided into counties or parishes; and each of these is divided into districts, precincts, towns, or townships. In some states, each county is entitled to one representative; in others, where population is the sole basis of representation, several counties, unitedly, can send but one member; in others, having a large population, they elect several representatives. Suppose a state has one hundred counties, and each contained a population of 10,000, and each was entitled to a representative in the lower branch of the legislature; the House of Representatives would, in such a state, consist of one hundred members. If the senate consisted of but twenty-five members, the state would be divided into twenty-five senatorial districts, each having a population of 4,000. Under such an organisation, the four counties would each elect a representative, and unitedly elect a senator. If, however, one county had 4,000 inhabitants, it would elect a senator; but if there were ten counties,

having only the 4,000, then, in that case, the senatorial district would be composed of ten counties.

All bills must pass both houses; and, in many of the states, they must be signed by the executive before they can become laws. Except on the raising of revenue, bills can originate in either house. The formalities of passing bills are much the same as those observed in the Congress of the United States, and in the parliament of Great Britain.

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THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.

The governor of the state exercises the functions of the executive department of the government. He signs the laws, and executes them in behalf of the people. He issues all commissions, and watches over the whole official business of the state. He has power to convene the legislature, but not to prorogue it. In some states he has a veto power; but, in such cases, the legislature can make the bill a law by a two-third vote; and, if thus passed, the governor must sign it.

The governor is elected by the people of the whole state; and usually for a term of years; the longest being four years.

The following clause from the constitution of New Hampshire, explains the powers of the governor with respect to the military. A similar clause is in the constitution of every state:

"The governor of this state for the time being, shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and all the military forces of this state, by sea and land; and shall have full power, by himself, or by any chief commander, or other officer or officers, from time to time, to train, instruct, exercise, and govern the militia and navy; and, for the special defence and safety of this state, to assemble