the invitation: "I perceive, then," said Aristippus, "it is not the luxury of my table that offends you, but the expense." To one who was boasting of his skill and activity in swimming he said, "Are you not ashamed to value yourself upon that which every dolphin can do better?" When he was asked what he had gained by philosophy? he replied, "a capacity of conversing, without embarrassment, with all classes of men." A wealthy citizen complaining that Aristippus, in requiring five hundred drachmas for the instruction of his son, had demanded as much as would purchase a slave; "Purchase one, then, with the money," said the philosopher," and you will be master of two." "13 Several maxims are ascribed to Aristippus, which are not unworthy of the Socratic school; for example, If there were no laws, a wise man would live honestly. It is better to be poor than illiterate; for the poor man only wants money, the illiterate want the distinguishing characters of human nature. The houses of the wealthy are frequented by philosophers, for the same reason for which those of the sick are frequented by physicians. The truly learned are not they who read much, but they who read what is useful. Young people should be taught those things, which will be useful to them when they become men.11 14 Aristippus, however, did not uniformly adhere to the excellent model upon which these maxims were framed. From the imperfect accounts which remain of his doctrine, it appears that he was eminently the preceptor of pleasure. He agreed with Socrates, in dismissing, as wholly unprofitable, all those speculations which have no connexion with the conduct of life. He compared those philosophers who neglected moral science, in the pursuit of that which is purely speculative, to Penelope's suitors, who preferred the handmaid to the mistress.15 The distinguishing tenets of his system, as far as they can be collected from the casual, and perhaps unfair representations of prejudiced contemporaries, and from the adulterated and vague reports of later writers, are as follows: Perceptions alone are certain; of the external objects 13 Laert. 14 Ibid. 15 Laert. l.ii. § 79, 80. Arist. Met. I. ii. c. 21. which produce them we know nothing. No one can be assured that the perception excited in his mind by any external object is similar to that which is excited by the same object in the mind of another person.16 Human nature is subject to two contrary affections, pain and pleasure, the one a harsh, the other a gentle emotion. The emotions of pleasure, though they may differ in degree, or in the object which excites them, are the same in all animals, and universally create desire. Those of pain are, in like manner, essentially the same, and universally create aversion. Happiness consists not in tranquillity or indolence, but in a pleasing agitation of the mind, or active enjoyment. Pleasure is the ultimate object of human pursuit; it is only in subserviency to this, that fame, friendship, and even virtue, are to be desired. All crimes are venial, because never committed but through the immediate impulse of passion. Nothing is just or unjust by nature, but by custom and law. The business of philosophy is to regulate the senses in that manner which will render them most productive of pleasure. Since pleasure is to be derived, not from the past or the future, but the present, a wise man will take care to enjoy the present hour, and will be indifferent to life or death,17 It would have been wonderful if so indulgent a system of morals had not obtained some admirers: but it would have been more wonderful, if a system which only provided for the gratification of the senses and the selfish passions, and left human nature destitute of its noblest ornaments and highest pleasures, had not soon fallen into the contempt which it deserved. After the death of Aristippus, his doctrine was professed and taught by his daughter Arete, a woman of learning and ability, sufficient to give her a place in the catalogue of philosophers.18 Among the more eminent disciples of this school was 16 Sextus Emp. adv. Math. 1. vii. § 191. Cic. in Lucullo, c. 7. Acad. Q. l. iv. c. 7. 17 Laert. 1. ii. §92-5. Cic. de Fin. 1. ii. c. 71. l. v. c. 128. Tusc. Q. 1. iii. c. 13. ii. c. 6. De Offic. iii. 33. Athæn. 1. xii. p. 544. Ælian. Var. Hist. 1. xiv. § 6. 18 Laert. l. ii. § 86. Clem. Alex. Strom. 1. iv. p. 523, Hegesias. His temper was too gloomy to find enjoyment upon his master's plan, and his principles furnished him with no other sources of happiness. He was so thoroughly dissatisfied with life, that he thought it the only concern of man to avoid misery, and wrote a book to prove, that death, as the cure of all evil, is the greatest good. Hence he obtained the appellation of Tσdávaros, the advocate for death.19* Another follower of Aristippus was Anicerris, a CyreHe so far receded from the doctrine of his master, as to acknowledge the merit of filial piety, friendship, and patriotism, and to allow that a wise man might retain the possession of himself in the midst of external troubles; but he inherited so much of his frivolous taste, as to value himself upon the most trivial accomplishments, particularly upon his dexterity in being able to drive a chariot twice round a course in the same ring.20 Theodorus, a disciple of Anicerris, for the freedom with which he spoke concerning the gods, was stigmatized with the name of Atheist, and banished from Cyrene.21 He took refuge in Athens; but his impiety would here have proved fatal to him, had not Demetrius Phalereus, who at that time had great influence over the Athenians, interposed in his favour. Under his protection he gained access to the court of Ptolemy Lagis. Venturing, after a long interval, to return to Athens, it is related, that he suffered death by hemlock; but whether his offence was, in reality, atheism, or whether it was merely contempt of the Grecian superstitions, has been much disputed. Sextus Empiricus 22 joins Theodorus with Eumerus, and others, who maintained that they who were esteemed gods, were men, who had possessed great power on earth: and Clemens Alex 19 Laert. I. ii. ́§ 94, 5. Cic. Tusc. Qu. l. i. c. 34. Val. Max. 1. viii. c. 9. * The passage of Laertius here referred to, is manifestly corrupted. The words, τήν τε ζωήν τε, καὶ τόν δὲ θάνατον αἱρετὸν, “ death and life are equally eligible"-are inconsistent with what is just before said of Hegesias. Casaubon ingeniously connects the words, TY TE Cony, with the preceding clause, and reads the passage thus: ὥστε ἀνύπαρκτον εἶναι τὴν εὐδαιμονίαν τὴν δὲ ζωήν· Τὸν δὲ θάνατον αἱρετὸν, "Since there is no real happiness in life, death is to be preferred." 20 Laert. l. ii. § 87. Suidas in Anîcerr. 21 Laert. 1. ii. § 98-102. Suidas, Bayle, 22 Adv. Math. 1. ix. §51, andrinus 23 expresses his surprise that Eumerus, Nicanor, Diagoras, Theodorus, and others, who had lived virtuously, should be pronounced atheists for their opposition to gentile polytheism.24 If these testimonies be not sufficient to remove all suspicion of atheism from the character of Theodorus, it may at least serve to prevent any positive decision against him. The same remark may be applied to Eumerus, who flourished in the time of Cassander the Younger, king of Macedonia, concerning whom it is related, that he undertook long journies in order to ascertain the places of the death and burial of the gods, and particularly that, in the island of Panchaia, in the Southern Ocean, he saw a pillar dedicated to Jupiter Triphylius, on which the memorable actions of that deity were inscribed.25 Among the followers of Theodorus was Bion, of Borysthenes, a man of low extraction. When young, he was sold as a slave to an orator, who afterwards gave him his freedom, and left him large possessions. Upon this he went to Athens, and applied himself to the study of philosophy. He had several preceptors; but chiefly attached himself to the doctrine of Theodorus, for which he was a professed advocate. He flourished about the one hundred and twentieth Olympiad.26* The short duration of the Cyrenaic sect, was owing, in part, to the remote distance of Cyrene from Greece, the chief seat of learning and philosophy; in part, to the unbounded latitude, which these philosophers allowed themselves in practice as well as opinion; and in part, to the rise of the Epicurean sect, which taught the doctrine of pleasure in a more philosophical form.27 23 Protrept. p. 24. 24 Conf. Lactant. 1. i. c. 12. Minuc. Fel. Oct. c. 8. Cic. de Nat. D. 1. i. c. 14. Plut. Plac. 1. i. c. 7. 25 Cic. de Al. loc. cit. Nat. D. 1.42. Plut. de Is. et Os. Euseb. Prep. i. ii. Clem. 26 Laert. I. iv. § 46-51. • B. C. 300. » Vidend. Menzii Aristippi Vet. Hal. 1719. Rat. c. vi. § 60. Parker de Deo. Diss. p. 1. 8. Mor. § 9. Themistii Orat. 21. Voss. de Idol. Gent. I. i. c. 1. Reiman. Hist. Ath. c. 24. Mourges Plan. de Pyth. t. i. c. 3. Gassend. Synt. Ph. Epic. p. ii. § 1. c. 3. Stollii Hist. Ph. Mor. § 55. Buddæi Thes. de Ather ism. c. 1. § 17. Zimmerman. Epist. ad Nonn. ap. Museum. Hist. Brem. v. i. Voss. Hist. Gr. l. i. c. 11. Wowerius de Polymathia. Bayle in Aristipp. &c. CHAP. VI. OF THE MEGARIC OR ERISTIC SECT. THE second sect, which sprung from the school of Socrates, was that which was instituted by Euclid of Megara, called from the place which gave birth to its founder, the Megaric sect, and from its disputatious character, the Eristic. It had also the appellation of Dialectic; not because it gave rise to dialectics or logical debates, which had before this time exercised the ingenuity of philosophers, particularly in the Eleatic school; but because the discourses and writings of this class of philosophers commonly took the form of dialogue.1 Euclid of Megara, endued by nature with a subtle and penetrating genius, early applied himself to the study of philosophy. The writings of Parmenides first taught him the art of disputation. Hearing of the fame of Socrates, Euclid determined to attend upon his instructions, and for this purpose removed from Megara to Athens. Here he long remained a constant hearer, and zealous disciple, of the Moral Philosopher. And when, in consequence of the enmity which subsisted between the Athenians and Megarians, a decree was passed by the former, that any inhabitant of Megara, who should be seen in Athens, should forfeit his life, he frequently came to Athens by night, from the distance of about twenty miles, concealed in a long female cloak and veil, to visit his master. Not finding his natural propensity to disputation sufficiently gratified in the tranquil method of philosophising adopted by Socrates, he frequently engaged in the business and disputes of the civil courts. Socrates, who despised forensic contests, expressed some dissatisfaction with his pupil for indulging a fondness for controversy. This circumstance probably proved the occasion of a separation between Euclid and his mas¬ ter; for we find him, after this time, at the head of a school Laert. l. ii. § 106. Cic. Tusc. Qu. 1. ii. 2 Lacrt. ib. Cic. Qu. Acad. 1. iv. c. 42. 3 Aul. Gel. Noct. Att. 1. vi. e̟. 10. Suidas. 3 4 Laert. I. ii. § 30. |