manner the soul acts upon the body, Plato speaks obscurely and inconsistently, but it is probable that, as he conceived the soul of the world to produce the motion of the earth and the heavenly bodies, by means of that part of its nature which is material; so he supposed the power of moving bodies, which belongs to the human soul, to be the effect of its material principle. To account for the origin and present state of human souls, Plato supposes, that when God formed the universe, he separated from the soul of the world inferior souls, equal in number to the stars, and assigned to each its proper celestial abode; but that these souls (by what means, or for what reason, does not appear) were sent down to the earth into human bodies, as into a sepulchre or prison. He ascribes to this cause the depravity and misery to which human nature is liable; and maintains, that it is only by disengaging itself from all animal passions, and rising above sensible objects to the contemplation of the world of intelligence, that the soul of man can be prepared to return to its original habitation.9 Not inconsistently with the preceding doctrine, our philosopher frequently speaks of the soul of man as consisting of three parts;10 the first, the seat of intelligence; the second, of passion; the third, of appetite; and assigns to each its proper place in the human body. The first of these portions or faculties of the soul (for Plato speaks of them under both these denominations) he conceived to have been derived from God; the second and third, from matter. The irrational parts of the soul, in the Platonic system, are not, however, to be confounded with the blood and nerves, which they were supposed to inhabit and to move. Lastly, Plato teaches, in express terms, the doctrine of the immortality of the rational soul: but he has rested the proof of this doctrine upon arguments drawn from the more fanciful parts of his system. For example: In nature all things terminate in their contraries; the state of sleep terminates in that of waking; and the reverse: so, life ends in death, and death in life. The soul is a simple indivisible substance, and therefore incapable of disso 9 Tim. I. c. Phæd. t.i. p. 66. Cic. Ac. Qu. 1. i. c. 11. lution, or corruption. The objects to which it naturally adheres are spiritual and incorruptible; therefore its nature is so. All our knowledge is acquired by the reminiscence of ideas contemplated in a prior state: as the soul therefore must have existed before this life, it is probable that it will continue to exist after it. Life being the conjunction of the soul with the body, death is nothing more than their separation. Whatever is the principle of motion must be incapable of destruction. Such is the substance of the arguments for the immortality of the soul, contained in the celebrated dialogue of the Phædo. It is happy for mankind, that their belief of this important doctrine rests upon firmer grounds than such futile reasonings. Preparatory to the study of theoretical philosophy, Plato required from his disciples a knowledge of the elements of mathematics.12 Although he has left no direct treatise. upon this subject, he has made frequent use of mathematical ideas and language to explain and illustrate his philosophical tenets; and he recommends these studies as peculiarly adapted to raise the mind from sensible to intellectual objects, and to inure it to abstract and general conceptions. Plato was a zealous advocate for the importance of that kind of science which is purely speculative, and, though a disciple of Socrates, censured those who make utility the only measure of the value of learning. Notwithstanding this predilection for abstract speculation, he did not, however; neglect, in his writings, to deliver precepts of prac tical philosophy. On the subjects of policy and morals, he prescribes rules which are intended for the direction of societies and individuals in the offices of life, but which would be much more valuable were they less tinctured with his theoretical doctrines. Concerning policy, Plato has written at large in his Re--, public, and in his Dialogue on Laws. He was so much enamoured with his own conceptions on this subject, that it was chiefly the hope of having an opportunity to realize his plan of a republic, which induced him to visit the court of Dionysius. But they who are conversant with mankind, and capable of calmly investigating the springs of human actions, will easily perceive, that his projects were chimerical, and could only have originated in a mind replete with philosophical enthusiasm. Of this nothing can be a clearer proof, than the design of admitting, in his republic, a community of women,13 in order to give reason an entire control over desire. The main object of his political institutions appears to have been the subjugation of the passions and appetites, by means of the abstract contemplation of ideas. A system of policy raised upon such fanciful grounds, cannot merit a more distinct consideration. The chief heads of Plato's moral doctrine, as it may be gathered up from detached passages in his writings (for he seldom treats directly on any moral topic) are these: Our highest good consists in the contemplation and knowledge of the first good, which is Mind, or God.14 All those things which are called good by men, are in reality such, only so far as they are derived from the first and highest good. The only power in human nature which can acquire a resemblance to the Supreme Good, is reason. The minds of philosophers are fraught with valuable treasures; and, after the death of the body, they shall be admitted to Divine entertainments; so that, whilst, with the gods, they are employed in surveying the fields of truth, they will look down with contempt upon the folly of those who are contented with earthly shadows.15 Goodness and beauty consist in the knowledge of the first good, and the first fair. That only which is becoming is good: therefore virtue is to be pursued for its own sake; and, because it is a Divine attainment, it cannot be taught, but is the gift of God.16 He alone who has attained the knowledge of the first good is happy. The end of this knowledge is, to render man as like to God as the condition of human nature will permit. This likeness consists in prudence, justice, sanctity, temperance." In order to attain Tim. t. iii. p. 18. 13 Rep. 1. v. t. ii. p. 457. 461. 14 Parmenid. t. iii. p. 134. Rep. 1. vi. t. ii. p. 505, 6. Phileb. t. ii. Protag. t. i. p. 351. Gorg. t. i. p. 467. 15 Rep. 1. vii. p. 20. 16 Alcib. t. ii. p. 116. Menon. t. ii. p. 98. 17 Leg. l. iv. t. ii. p. 716. Theæt. t. 176. Cratyl. t. i. p. 402. VOL. I. 2 H this state, it is necessary to be convinced that the body is a prison, from which the soul must be released before it can arrive at the knowledge of those things which are real and immutable.18 Virtue is the most perfect habit of mind which adorns the man, and renders him firm, resolute, and consistent, in action and speech, in solitude and society.19 The virtues are so nearly allied, that they cannot be separated; they are perfect, and therefore neither capable of increase nor of diminution.20 The passions are motions of the soul, excited by some apparent good or evil: they originate in the irrational parts of the soul, and must be regulated and subdued by reason.21 Friendship is, strictly speaking, reciprocal benevolence, which inclines each party to be as solicitous for the welfare of the other as for his own. This equality of affection is created and preserved by a similarity of disposition and manners.22 On the whole, although many just and sublime sentiments on moral subjects are to be found in the writings of Plato, it will appear, upon an impartial examination, that his ethical doctrine is in some particulars defective, and in others extravagant and absurd. The fanciful notions which he entertained concerning the Divine nature, the world of Ideas, and matter, seem to have given a romantic and enthusiastic turn to his conceptions on morals: a defect which may be in part ascribed to his connexion with the Pythagorean school, but which was, perhaps, chiefly owing to the peculiar propensity of his genius towards metaphysical fiction.23 p. 804. Gorg. t. i. p. 506. Protag. t. i. p. 329. Phæd. t. iii. p. 102. 22 Lysid. t. ii. p. 214. 18 Phæd, t. i. p. 66. 19 Leg. I. vii. t. ii. 20 Protag. p. 345. 21 Phil. t. ii. p. 47. 23 Vidend. Jons. Scrip. Hist. Phil. I. i. c. 6. 11. 13. 1. iii. c. 10. Olympiodor. de Vit. Plat. post Laert. ed. Causab. Ficinus de Vit. Plat. Guarinus de Vit. Illust. Græc. Rapin Comp. Plat. et Aristot. Dacier. Vit. Plat. Delin. Melancthon. de Vit. Plat. Petav. Rat. Temp. l. iii. c. 13. Cyrill. contra Julian. 1. vi. Æn. Gaza de Immort. p. 12. Eugben de Perenni Phil. 1. i. c. 27. Hanschius de Enthus. Plat. Balt Defens des S. Peres. l. iv. c. 22. Lamius de Trinit. Florent. 1733. Cleric. Epist. Cr. vii. 177. Budd. Hist. Vet. Test. t. ii. p. 1006. L'Enfant. Diss. Bibl. Germ. t. ii. art. 5. Heuman. Act. Phil. v. i. p. 1056. Basnagé Hist. des Juifs. t. iv. c. 3, 4. Gundling. Hist. Phil. Mor. c. 1. §1. Paschius de Var. Mod. Trad. Mor. c. i. § 9. Mcurs. Ceramic. c. 19. Fabric. Bibl. SECT. II. Of the Old, the Middle, and the New Academy. THE school of Plato long continued famous, but passed through several changes, on account of which it was successively distinguished into the Old, the Middle, and the New Academy.24 26 The Old Academy consisted of those followers of Plato, who taught the doctrine of their master without mixture or corruption. The first of these was Speusippus,25 an Athenian, a nephew of Plato: he occupied the chair of instruction during the term of eight years from the death of his master. Through the interest of Plato he enjoyed an intimate friendship with Dion, whilst he was resident at Athens; and it was at his instigation, that Dion, encouraged by the promise of support from the malecontents of Syracuse, undertook his expedition against Dionysius the tyrant, by whom he had been banished. Contrary to the practice of Plato, Speusippus required from his pupils a stated gratuity. He placed statues of the Graces in the school which Plato had built. On account of his infirm state of health, he was commonly carried to and from the academy in a vehicle. On his way thither he one day met Diogenes, and saluted him; the surly philosopher refused to return the salute, and told him, that such a feeble Antiq. c. 21. Potter Arch. l. i. c. 8. Schmidii Diss. de Gymnas. Junius de Acad. Herm. Conring. Ant. Acad. p. 197. Blount Cens. Cel. Vir. p. 26. Bessario contra Trapezuntium. Voss. de Idol. 1. i. c. 4. Vavasor de Dict. Judic. c. 3. Caussin. de Eloq. t. i. c. 69. Fleury Diss. de Plat. adjcct. lib. de Stud. Instit. Burnet Arch. l.i. c. 11. Brucker. Hist. de Ideis. ed. Aug. Vind. 1723. Suppl. Amoen. Lit. t. viii. Diss. de Numeris Pyth. Am. Lit. t. 7. Puffendorf. Diss. de Theol. Plat. inter Opusc. Benii Theol. Plat. Cudworth, c. iv. v. cum Not. Mosh. Crispus de Platone caute legendo. Trevener. Diss. de Theol. Plat. et Arist. Zimmerman. de Ath. Plat. Amoen. Lit. t. 9. 12, 13. Reimann. Hist. Ath. c. 22. Wolf. de Manich. § 32. Bayle. Art. Zoroast. n. E. Javelli Mor. Phil. Plat, Ven. 1536. Omeisii Ethica Plat. Altdorf. 1698. Zentgravii Spec. Doct. Plät. de Jure Nat.. Souverain Platonisme devoilé. 24 Cic. Qu. Acad. passim. 20 Plut, in Dionc. 25 Laert. I. iv. § 1. Suidas. |