favoured the Platonism which then prevailed: Tatian, who went over to the Gnostics; and Tertullian, who, though well skilled in ancient philosophy, rejected it altogether. In the third century, Origen, who mixed the Eclectic philosophy of Alexandria with the Christian doctrine. In the fourth century, Arnobius, Lactantius, Eusebius, Didymus, Augustine, Chalcidius. In the fifth century, Synesius, and Pseudo-Dionysius, in the East; and in the West, Claudius Mammertus and Boëthius; who, after Origen, leaned towards the Eclectic sect, while Boëthius favoured the Peripatetic. In the sixth century, Æneas Gaza, and Zecharias Scholasticus, who were inclined to the Eclectic philosophy; to whom may be added Philoponus; who, though attached to the same system, turned his attention chiefly to the interpretation of Aristotle.

II. From the Seventh Century to the Revival of Letters; during which come under consideration,

1. The philosophy of the Greek or Oriental Christians, from the seventh century to the taking of Constantinople; where the following things are chiefly to be remarked: Alexandrian Platonism expired among the Pagans in the seventh century, and its remains were only found among the Christians, and chiefly among the monks. Out of the monasteries, the Aristotelian philosophy began to revive through the labours of John of Damascus, who called in this philosophy to the aid of theology. He may not improperly be considered as the harbinger of the Scholastic philosophy. After this time barbarism prevailed, till, in the ninth century, under the emperors Michael and Barda, learning was in some degree revived. The most celebrated names, at this period, in the East, were, Psellus the Elder, Leo the philosopher, Photius, Nicetas, Nicephorus, Pachymerus, and Lapitha, all Peripatetics; and Psellus the Younger, an admirer of the Alexandrian philosophy.

2. The philosophy of the Western Christians from the seventh century to the twelfth: during which period flourished, in the seventh century, Boëthius and Isidore. In the eighth, Bede, Theodore Cilix, Alcuin, &c. In the ninth, Rabanus, Erigena, Eginhard, Adelard, Grimbald,

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&c. In the tenth, Bridferd, Dunstan, Remigius, Nanno, Gerbert, &c. In the eleventh, Fulbert, Berengar, Lanfranc, Anselm, Hermannus, &c. and Roscelin, from whom arose the memorable controversy between the Nominalists and Realists. The wisdom of this period was almost wholly wasted in dialectic subtleties.

The Scholastic philosophy, which was a confused mass of notions compounded of Arabian and Aristotelian philosophy and polemic theology. Lanfranc, Roscelin, and others, have been called the fathers of this philosophy.

From the beginning of the twelfth century to the middle of the thirteenth, the more celebrated Scholastics were, Abelard, Lombard, Porretan, Comestor, John of Salisbury, and Pulleyn; between the middle of the thirteenth century and the year 1330, flourished Albert, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Roger Bacon, Ægidius, Duns Scotus; to these succeeded, before the revival of letters, Durand, Occam, Suisset, and Wessel.

The Scholastics were divided into various sects, such as Albertists, Thomists, Scotists, Occamists; but those of the Nominalists and Realists are most celebrated.

PERIOD THE THIRD.

From the Revival of Letters to the Beginning of the present Century; in which we find,

I. ATTEMPTS TO RESTORE AND CORRECT THE SECTARIAN PHILOSOPHY. These we owe to the restoration of learning, and particularly to the revival of the study of the Greek language.

1. After Raymund Lully, in the thirteenth century, had in vain pretended to improve philosophy by his inventive art; in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, many learned men arose; who, either by reviving a taste for classical studies, or by translating and commenting upon the writings of the ancient philosophers, or by satirizing the Scholastic philosophy and its professors, prepared the way for the reformation of philosophy. Among these, some of the more celebrated names are Chrysoloras, Paleologus,

Dante, Petrarch, Boccace, Aretin, Politian, Philelphus, Valla, Agricola, and Argyropulus.

2. The revival of learning, accompanied with the reformation of religion, produced a general inclination to restore the ancient honours of philosophy. Erasmus, Vives, Nizolius, and others, exposed to ridicule the false philosophy of the Scholastics; Luther, Melancthon, Faber, Agricola, Camerarius, and others, contributed in various ways to the correction of philosophy in general.

3. Learned men arose, who formed the design of reviving the ancient Grecian sects, and arranged themselves, respectively, under the standards of the ancient masters. Particularly,

(1.) The Platonic Philosophy, mixed with the Pythagorean, was revived by Pletho, Bessario, and Ficinus: Picus added the Cabbalistic doctrine; and his footsteps were followed by Reuchlin, Venetus, Agrippa, and More; while Patricius, Gale, Cudworth, Burnet, and others, rejecting the Cabbalistic dreams, endeavoured to restore Alexandrian Platonism.

(2.) The Aristotelian Philosophy was taught, either mixed with the Scholastic, by Lobkowitz, Ricciolus, Honoratus Faber, and others; or pure, by Gaza, Trapezuntius, Scholarius, Pomponatius, Niphus, Cremoninus, Melancthon, Simon, Schegkius, Sherbius, Taurellus, Sonerus, Conringius, and many more.

(3.) The Parmenidean Philosophy was restored by Telesius, who, meeting with much opposition, was ably defended by Campanella.

(4.) The Ionic Philosophy had a new advocate in Berigard; who however acknowledged that, both the Ionic and the Peripatetic system were defective, and was hence inclined to scepticism.

(5.) The Stoic Philosophy found an able patron in Lipsius, who was closely followed by Scioppius and Gataker. (6.) The Epicurean Philosophy, after an unsuccessful attempt by Magnenus, was revived by Gassendi, who was followed by Bernier and Charleton.

II. ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE NEW METHODS OF PHILOSOPHISING, made by

1. Modern Sceptics; of whom the most celebrated are Sanchez, Hernhaym, Vayer, Huet, and Bayle.

2. Scriptural Philosophers, who, despairing of being able to arrive at truth by the light of reason, had recourse to the Scriptures, particularly to the Mosaic cosmogony, and endeavoured upon this foundation to raise a new structure of philosophy. These are, chiefly, Alsted, Dickinson, Burnet, Whiston, Comenius, and Bayer.

3. Theosophists, who boast that they derive their hidden wisdom, not from the exercise of the understanding in inquiries after truth, but from immediate Divine illumination. To this class of philosophers are to be referred, Paracelsus and his disciples, Fludd, Boehmen, Helmont, Poiret, and, according to some, the Rosicrusians.

4. Professed Enemies of Philosophy, of whom the principal are, besides the Sceptics and Theosophists, Pomponatius, Cremoninus, and Daniel Hoffman.

III. ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE PHILOSOPHY IN THE TRUE ECLECTIC METHOD; not such as was followed by the Alexandrian philosophers, but that which consists in rejecting prejudices of every kind, subjecting the opinions of former philosophers to the strict scrutiny of reason, and admitting no conclusions but such as may be clearly deduced from principles founded in the nature of things, and discovered by experience. Among modern Eclectic philosophers are,

1. Those who have endeavoured to improve Philosophy in general; of whom the principal are Bruno, Cardan, Bacon, Campanella, Hobbes, Des Cartes, Leibnitz, Thomas, and Wolfe.

2. Those who have endeavoured to improve particular Branches of Philosophy; as,

(1.) Logic and Metaphysics; such as, Peter Ramus, Arnold, Spinoza and his followers, Mallebranche, Tschernhausen, Locke.

(2.) Morals and Jurisprudence; as Montaigne, Charon, Scultet, Boden, Machiavel, Grotius, Selden, Puffendorf.

(3.) Natural Philosophy; as Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, Gilbert, Boyle, Newton.

HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

IN an undertaking so extensive as the ensuing, it is necessary, that the general object be at first clearly ascertained, and that the limits of the design be accurately defined. As this work is intended to be a history, not of literature or science in general, but of Philosophy, the reader should be previously informed, in what sense the author understands the term; especially, as there are few words to which a greater variety of significations has been annexed.

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What is now called Philosophy, was, in the infancy of human society, denominated Wisdom; and indeed every ingenious discovery, and useful art, was then honoured with this appellation.1 The title of Wise Men was, at that time, frequently conferred upon persons who had little claim to such distinction; and superstition very early bestowed it upon those who were entrusted with the direction of religious concerns; although it cannot be doubted, that they had often no other right to such pre-eminence, than that which was founded upon ingenious imposture. Men of superior understanding, at length detecting the fallacy of these pretensions, were induced to assert their own right of free inquiry, and prosecuted their researches after truth, if not with the success which they expected, at least with that liberal spirit which gave them a just claim to the title of Wise Men. The wisdom, which they in this manner acquired, many of them applied to purposes highly beneficial to mankind: whence the term Wisdom came, by degrees, to denote both the scientific study, and the practical application of such truths, as were adapted to promote the happiness of human life.

In process of time, when a race of self-created preceptors arose in Greece, who assumed the name of Sophists, or Wise Men, their arrogant pretensions gave great offence