so fond of fine clothes and good living: no doubt he thought himself "somebody," and made other people think so too; but what did it all come to? You have heard, too, of Lazarus, who was a "nobody," for he asked the crumbs only which fell from the rich man's table, and yet you know what became of him. It happened to them both exactly according to the texts that I have given you: the proud "somebody" was brought low, and punished "where the worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched," while the humble "nobody" was lifted up even to heaven. Though the giant oaks and lofty cedars of the earth are laid low, yet do we lift up our heads like them, defying the storm. What a world of trouble, what a number of losses and crosses, what a succession of afflictions, are necessary, to convince us that we are "nobodies!" Indeed, Divine grace alone can effectually teach us true christian humility. David was taught this lesson, when reflecting on the vast and mighty works of creation. "When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained, what is man, that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou visitest him?" If David was a "nobody" when he reflected on God's creation, surely you and I ought to be "nobodies" when reflecting on his grace. CHEMISTRY. No. XIII. OXIDES. Ir has been already stated, that several of the simple substances unite with certain proportions of oxygen, and are converted into oxides. It is, however, necessary that some more extended remarks should be made upon this class of compounds. The metals, and other bodies, are said to be changed into oxides, when they have not been combined with a sufficient quantity of oxygen to give them the properties of acids. The metals are generally oxidized by exposure to the air; and by the decomposition of water, and the acids. Iron, as is well known, may be converted into an oxide by exposure to the air, for that which is called the rust of iron is, properly speaking, its oxide. By this union with oxygen, the weight of the metals is increased; in some instances nearly one-half of their original weight. This may be easily proved by filling a tobacco-pipe with pieces of iron that have been previously weighed, and after wards exposing them for some time to a red heat. It may be demonstrated that the change which takes place in the properties of metals when converted into oxides, is occasioned by their union with oxygen; for it is possible to abstract this substance, and to present the metal again in its pure state. This process, which is called the de-oxidation of metals, is sometimes effected by the agency of another metal, that is, of one having a greater affinity for oxygen than the oxidized substance, but more frequently by charcoal. If one ounce of red-lead (red oxide of lead) be mixed with half a drachm of charcoal in a mortar, and be then submitted to a sufficient temperature, the oxygen will combine with the charcoal, and the lead will be restored to its pure state. Some metals will only absorb oxygen at a very high temperature: this is the case with gold, silver, and platinum; whilst manganese is in a few hours converted into an oxide by mere exposure to the air. In manufactories on a large scale, that of redlead for example, ovens are provided for the purpose of keeping the metal in a melted state, continually accessible to atmospheric air. But the metals vary in their capacity for absorbing oxygen, as well as in their attraction for this substance, a property that renders one metal useful to the chemist as an agent to attract the oxygen which may be in combination with another. Iron, tin, zinc, and manganese, are oxidized by the decomposition of water; an effect which is greatly increased if the temperature of the liquid be raised. This process is easily explained, and will serve as a general illustration. The metal has a stronger affinity for oxygen than is possessed by hydrogen; it will consequently exert an attractive influence on it, and destroying the union of the two gases which constitute water, the oxygen will combine with the metal, and the hydrogen will be lost. Several of the metals, when dissolved in acids, are of frequent importance in the arts, but it is necessary to observe, that this solution can never be effaced unless the metal has previously united with oxygen. The nature of a combination of oxygen and a metal, the subsequent solution of the metal in an acid, and its revivification, is satisfactorily illustrated by an experiment mentioned in Parke's Catechism: "Take some clippings of copper, heat them in a mixture of 8 parts of water, 3 of sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) and 1 of nitric acid, (aqua fortis,) and when the copper is dissolved, | into an abstracted kind of enmity. The dilute the solution with water, and set it aside to crystallize. The crystals thus produced will be the true sulphate of copper, and will exemplify the formation of a metallic salt. If these crystals are now dissolved in a little water, and the polished blade of a knife immersed in the solution, the copper will be revived, and appear of its natural colour upon the knife. The oxygen having a greater affinity for the iron than the copper, the latter becomes deoxidized, and consequently insoluble in the acid; it therefore precipitates itself from the solution, and attaches itself to the knife in a metallic form. In the formation of sulphate of copper, by this process, the oxidizement of the metal, and its solution in the acid, seem to be only one operation; but the metal is undoubtedly first oxidized by the oxygen of the nitric acid, and then becomes soluble in the sulphuric acid." The most important and useful of the oxides are of a metallic nature. Hydrogen is remarkable as a substance not capable of forming an acid with oxygen; the oxide it forms is water. Carbonic acid is a gaseous compound, containing 57 parts of carbon, and 73 of oxygen, and is not capable of supporting animal life. Nitrogen and oxygen, the gases that form atmospheric air, will also unite in other proportions, and form nitrous oxide, and nitric oxide. Nitrous oxide (protoxide of nitrogen) has a near resemblance, in some respects, to atmospheric air. It consists of two parts of nitrogen and one of oxygen, and may be procured by gradually applying heat to the nitrate of ammonia in a retort; the salt will melt, and the nitrous oxide be given off. It is a good supporter of combustion, but is chiefly remarkable for its property of producing, when breathed, very extraordinary and pleasurable sensations, and a strong inclination for laughter and violent muscular exertion, without leaving any languor or depression when the effect has subsided. THE SUFFERINGS OF CHRIST. NOT only were Christ's sufferings for those that neither deserved nor sought after deliverance, but for those that were enemies: "When we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son," Rom. v. 10. "And you that were sometimes alienated, and enemies in your mind by wicked works, yet now hath he reconciled," Col. i. 21. And the enmity was so perfect, that it corrupted the best habits of our minds, and turned them very wisdom of the flesh is earthly, sensual, and devilish, James iii. 15; so that there was not only in our nature an absence of any good that might move God to do any thing for us, and an absence of that life which might be solicitous for itself; but there was a positive malignity in our nature against that God who should pardon; against that Christ who should atone; against that grace and Spirit who should sanctify. We were actuated with those vile affections and lusts, that looked upon a Saviour with no less aversion and spite than those devils did that cried out of the possessed man, "Art thou come to torment us before our time?" And yet for these, and such as these, our Saviour died. Nay,some of those who had actually joined to shed his blood found the efficacy of that very blood which they shed, Heb. xii. 24, not crying for revenge against them, but mercy for them, and healing those who had cruelly spilt it. The ef ficacy of that blessed prayer of his, “ Father forgive them, they know not what they do," within some few months after his death did first wound their hearts with a sense of their guilt, and then healed them by the application of his blood, Acts ii. 23, 37.-Sir M. Hale. COCK-CROWING IN THE EAST. IT has been often remarked, says Mr. Arundell, in illustration of Scripture, that in the eastern countries the cocks crow in the night; but the regularity with which they keep what may be called the watches, has not been perhaps sufficiently noticed. I will, however, confine myself to one, and that is, between eleven and twelve o'clock. I have often heard the cocks of Smyrna crowing in full chorus at that time, and with scarcely the variation of a minute. The second cock-crowing is between one and two o'clock; therefore, when our Lord says, "In this night before the cock crow twice," Mark xiv. 30, the allusion was clearly to these seasons. In fact, this was altogether so novel to me at my first arrival in Smyrna, that I could calculate the hours of the night with the utmost precision, by what I termed my electrometer, as by my watch.-Discoveries in Asia Minor. JOHN DAVIS, 56, Paternoster Row, London. Price id. each, or in Monthly Parts, containing Five Numbers in a Cover, 3d. W. TYLER, Printer, 4, Ivy Lane, St. Paul's. SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATIONS.-No. XVII. "Behold, as the eyes of servants look unto the hand of their masters, and as the eyes of a maiden unto the hand of her mistress; so our eyes wait upon the Lord our God, until that he have mercy upon us."-Psalm cxxiii. 2. GREAT reverence in these expressions. Servants or slaves, in the east, pay the most profound respect to those whom they serve. From their inferiority, they dare not speak in their master's presence. Every command is given them in silence, and the sign is always expressive, and well understood. Hence the mutes in the Turkish seraglio. In Egypt and in Persia the like custom prevails. Pococke says, that at a visit in Egypt, every thing is done with the greatest decency and the most profound silence; the slaves or servants standing at the bottom of the room, with their hands joined before them, watching with the utmost attention every VOL III. motion of their master, who commands them by signs. So also De la Mottraye says, that the eastern ladies are waited on even at the least wink of the eye, or motion of the fingers, and that in a manner not perceptible to strangers. In these illustrations we can then see the expressive beauty and force of the psalmist's language. The godly man is, indeed, not the slave of his Master, for his service is 66 perfect freedom;" but as the eastern servant, in silent reverence, stands with folded hands, attentive eyes, and ready feet, to do his master's commands, and in all respects submissive to his will; and as the maid, in like manner, regards the motions of her mistress's hand, so does he, with profound reverence, a patient mind, and obedient hands and feet, ever stand prepared to do the commands of his Lord. And those commands he knows are not grievous. They G G are, however, not always explained to him; "What thou knowest not now, thou shalt know hereafter." They are also sometimes difficult; but in keeping them "there is an exceeding great reward." The psalmist wrote this psalm when the church of God was in great distress. There is a season for the servant of God to wait, and to look for the motion of that hand which can alone afford supply, insure protection, or effect deliverance. This is our God," can every good man say: we have waited for him." I. C. 66 NINETY-FOUR FOLIO VOLUMES. MANY are the instances on record of human perseverance, and the following is a recent illustration of what may be effected by individual attention to one undertaking. The late Francis Cox, Esq., of Brompton Crescent, a gentleman of original taste and uncommon perseverance, began, many years ago, to cut out of the public journals such scraps as, in his estimation, possessed interest. These scraps, forming altogether a singular collection of whimsical, interesting, and instructive facts, he continued, from time to time, to paste on the blank leaves of books prepared to receive them, little thinking what mass of matter would, by this means, be at length accumulated. These scraps, before his death, which took place a short time ago, amounted to no less than ninety-four folio volumes. It was his intention to make up the number to a hundred, and then present them to his majesty; but this intention was abandoned, and the ninety-four volumes, entitled "Fragmenta," were bequeathed by him to the British Museum, provided they were thought worthy the acceptance of that institution. It is needless to add, that the volumes have been sufficiently estimated to be added to the splendid collection of books at the Museum, and that no doubt many a curious eye will investigate them, and many an antiquarian spirit ponder over them, with interest and satisfaction. Ninety-four folio volumes of scraps, having no necessary connexion with each other, must of necessity present an entertainment of no ordinary kind, offering something suitable to every taste; a sort of flowery labyrinth wherein the reader may willingly lose himself; the man of science and reflection recreate and refresh his memory; and the lover of the wonderful and marvellous find abundant sources of gratification. CHEMISTRY.-No XIV. ACIDS.NO. I. "THE term acid explains itself by its ordinary acceptation; for though there may be a great diversity in the tastes excited by different acid bodies, both with respect to intenseness and quality, yet no language has furnished distinct names for this variety. Sorrel, vinegar, cream of tartar, lemons, tamarinds, and a great many other bodies, are said to be acid when tasted."Watson's Essays. According to the theory of Lavoisier, which had numerous supporters, oxygen is the acidifying principle. But it has been proved, that several of the acids do not contain oxygen; and therefore this cannot be considered as the origin of acidity. The acids are found to exist in a solid, a liquid, or a gaseous form. "The acids are by far the most important class of bodies in chemistry. It was by their means, indeed, by studying their properties, and by employing them as instruments in the examination of other bodies, that men of science laid the foundation of chemistry, and brought it to that state in which we find it at present. The nature and composition of acids, therefore, became a very important point of discussion, and occupied the attention of the most eminent cultivators of the science." Thompson. One important distinguishing property of the acids is their power of changing the blue, green, and purple colours of vegetables into red. They have generally a great affinity for water, and will combine with it in almost every proportion. They will also unite with the earths, alkalies, and most of the metallic oxides, constituting another class of compound substances, called salts. The acids were formerly arranged by Let us not, however, be content with this chemists under the general classes, mineral, vegetable, and animal, according to the source from which they were obtained. The division now adopted is founded upon the number of elementary principles which enter into their composition. The first class embraces all those acids which contain two principles; the second class includes those which are composed of more than two principles. We shall first attempt to describe the properties of some of the acids belonging to the first class. Sulphuric acid is one of the most important, and may be here mentioned. It was once called by chemists the oil of vitriol, and in commerce is still known by the same name. This acid is composed of two volumes of sulphur and three of oxygen, and is procured by burning sulphur, under peculiar circumstances, in contact with oxygen. When pure, it is transparent and colourless, without smell, possessed of a strong acid taste, and very corrosive in its nature. A great heat may be produced by the mixture of sulphuric acid and water; if four pounds of the acid be united with one pound of water, the temperature of the mixture will be about 300 Fahrenheit. This acid is exceedingly useful to the practical chemist and the manufacturer. By the slow combustion of sulphur, in contact with oxygen, a gas may be formed which, when condensed into a fluid, is found to contain a smaller proportion of oxygen than the acid of which we have spoken. It is called the sulphurous acid, and possesses properties differing from those of the sulphuric. As a gas, it is invisible; has a strong suffocating smell, readily combines with water, and extinguishes flame. It consists of one volume of sulphur and one of oxygen. It may be here mentioned that a substance, combined with the greatest proportion of oxygen it is known to absorb, has the termination ic affixed to the generic name; and when with a lesser proportion, the ending ous is added. Thus we have the sulphuric and sulphurous acids, the nitric and nitrous. CARBONIC ACID is a compound of carbon and oxygen, in the proportion of six parts of the former to sixteen of the latter, and when discovered, was called fixed air. It is heavier than atmospheric air, and is not capable of supporting combustion or respiration. It is an ingredient of atmospheric air, and constitutes about 1-1000th part. If water be impregnated with this acid, it will acquire an acidulous and agreeable flavour. The briskness of bottled porter, ale, cider, and other fermented liquors, is owing to the carbonic acid they contain. The sponginess of bread is owing to the same cause. This acid, when found as a gas, in caverns and mines, is called by excavators the chokedamp. In-all parts of the world, it is found in combination with mineral substances: chalk, marble, and limestone consist of lime and carbonic acid. Carbonic Acid gas may be procured by pouring a small quantity of sulphuric air upon powdered chalk, and still more readily from the brewer's fermenting tun, when the beer is in a state of fermentation. This gas is much more heavy than atmospheric acid, and has the property of extinguishing flame. Both these statements may be proved by placing a lighted taper in a long open glass vessel, and then holding the mouth of a phial containing the gas over it. The gas will descend to the bottom of the glass, and the light will be extinguished. NITRIC ACID, commonly called aqua fortis, is, when pure, colourless and transparent. It is composed of ten parts of nitrogen and twenty-five of oxygen. It is very corrosive, and has the property of imparting a permanent yellow colour to the skin. The aqua fortis of commerce has generally a yellow hue, in consequence of its containing a small portion of muriatic acid. Properly speaking, it should be called the nitrous acid. The nitric acid is very volatile, and, when exposed to the air, emits an abundance of white fumes. It generally contains about 2-5ths of water in solution. It is extensively used in manufactures; in the arts of dyeing and gold refining, among others. By pouring this acid upon finely-powdered charcoal, the latter will instantly ignite and emit brilliant sparks. NORTHUMBERLAND HOUSEHOLD BOOK. THE most perfect notion of the living and domestic arrangements of the old English nobility and gentry will be found in the entries of what were called the Household Books of the time. One of the most celebrated of these records is the Northumberland Household Book, being the regulations of the establishment of the fifth earl of Northumberland, at his castles of Wrenill and Lekinfield, in Yorkshire, begun 1512. No baron's family was on a nobler or more splendid footing. It consisted of one hundred and sixty persons, masters and servants; fifty-seven strangers were reckoned upon every day; on the whole, two hundred and twenty-three. During winter they fed mostly on salt meat and |