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THE "

FLYING DRAGON, NEARLY NATURAL SIZE.

behold how vast is the sternum, affording a wide space to be occupied by the peculiar muscles which act upon the organs of flight; and, besides the clavicles, which support the shoulders, and keep them duly forward, observe the furculum, or merrythought, strictly analogous to the clavicles in man, keeping the shoulders wide apart, by bearing the strain of the muscles, which tend to bring them together. Look again at the short, firm, and almost immoveable back-bone; whence arise the strong ribs, locked upon each other, and

THE FLYING DRAGON. gorgons, hydras, and chimeras dire," monsters with which credulous ignorance once peopled the foreign regions of the earth, have vanished before the light of science; and we smile at the names and pictures of beings, which could not have possibly existed, inasmuch as their component parts could not be associated together, without a violation of the laws of nature. Fear may give wings to the mighty boa, but wings would not assist his progress; neither, indeed, could they be possessed by him, and for the follow-uniting firmly with the edge of the stering reason-The plan upon which the skeleton is built prevents it. In snakes, there is no sternum or breast-bone; no clavicles -no scapula,—and these are essential to the presence of true effective wings. Look, for example, at the skeleton of a bird:

VOL. III.

num. But the structure of the skeleton in the snake is the opposite to all this; short, slender ribs, and a back-bone composed of a multitude of distinct portions, united by a ball and socket mode of articulation; such is the skeleton of the long

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and tortuous serpent. The dragon of romance lives only in sickly and unnatural fables; the name, however, is still retained in science, and applied to a group of most beautiful and harmless little lizards, of one of which we give a figure at the head of the present number; it is the Draco radiatus.

Among the strange and anomalous beings, whose existence, at some distant epoch of our earth, is proved by the researches of geology, which have brought to light their fossil remains, we find a flying lizard, to which Cuvier has given the name of Pterodactylus, and which, as the construction of its skeleton abundantly proves, was capable of skimming from one point to another, or perhaps even of flitting on wide membranous wings. That these wings were membranous, may be readily concluded, from the circumstance of their being supported upon long slender bones, very like what we find in the wing of the bat; in short, they acted as stretchers, when the wings were expanded. These stretchers of the membrane were, indeed, neither more nor less than the bones of the second finger of each fore paw, lengthened out so enormously, as to extend to more than double the length of the rest of the body. The neck was very long; the head large; and the jaws armed with pointed teeth; the tail being very short. The appearance of such a creature sweeping through the air, (small as was its size,) would be almost terrific to the timid or ignorant, were it now a denizen of the earth: it has, however, passed away, a few fossil relics being all that testify of its having once existed.

In some respects, the little Draco resembles the Pterodactylus, having a membranous expansion attached to the sides, but not connected to the limbs, which are perfectly free. This membrane, which is a continuation of the skin, is supported by six false ribs on each side; for these, instead of turning down so as to encircle the body, are considerably elongated, and constitute the frame-work of this natural parachute. We call it a parachute, rather than wings, because it is not moved as wings are, in order to strike the air, but is merely expanded, so as to enable the little creature to take long, sweeping leaps, from branch to branch, or tree to tree; where, among the leaves, it searches for its insect food. Hence, it cannot be said to fly, as does the bat or the bird; it

cannot, like them, raise itself into the air, its aerial progress being limited to a long, sweeping leap. In this respect, it is like the flying squirrels (sciuropterus) which have a membrane extending along the sides, between the anterior and posterior extremities, so as to endow them with the power of taking long, skimming leaps, among their native woods, and of precipitating themselves with safety from the highest branches, either to the ground or to a distant branch.

The characters of the genus Draco, in addition to the membranous wings, or parachutes, are as follows:-The body is covered with minute scales; the tongue is fleshy, and capable of very little power of protrusion, contrary to what forms so remarkable a feature in the chameleon. Beneath the throat there hangs a pendulous fold of skin, forming a sort of dew-lap of considerable extent; the tail is long and slender; the teeth in each jaw consist of four little incisors in front, and, on each side, a sharp canine tooth, and twelve little triangular grinders, each having three projecting points, one at each angle of the surface. Three species are known and described, all natives of India; in whose forests, amidst the covert of leaves, to which they themselves bear no unapt resemblance, they find shelter and food. M.

AN EPITAPH.

It was a beautiful morning, when I entered the church-yard of a country town to examine and admire the goodly structure before me, and to enjoy the lovely prospect which stretched beyond its walls. While I sat upon the turf, viewing the scene around, a row of family graves caught my attention, and I read on one of the monumental stones, an inscription to the memory of a young lady who died about the beginning of the present century, “aged eighteen years." It was as follows:"Here innocence and virtue lie, whose breath

Was snatch'd by early, not untimely
death.

Hence did she go, just as she did begin
Sorrow to know, before she knew to sin.
Death, that does sin and sorrow thus
prevent,

Is the next blessing to a life well spent." I could not but consider the sentimen expressed in these lines as contrary to the

express declarations of the word of God, and the sentiments which, in the liturgy and articles, at least, and I have reason to believe from the pulpit also, are often heard within the neighbouring church. As I left the church-yard, the idea came across me that I was mistaken in the age, that it must have been some infant's memorial, perhaps a child of eighteen days. I returned, but read distinctly, "Aged eighteen years." How then, thought I, can this be reconciled with Eccles. vii. 20, "There is not a just man on earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not;" or Ps. xiv. 2, 3, "They are all gone aside, there is none that doeth good;" or Gen. vi. 55, "Every imagination of the thoughts of man's heart is evil;" viii. 21, "The imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth;" Jer. xvii. 9, "The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked;" Prov. xx. 9, "Who can say, I have made my heart clean ?" James iii. 2, "In many things we offend all;" 1 John i. 8, "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves." Many, very many other texts might be added.

Upon further consideration, the cause of this error became distinctly marked to my mind, and I could not but say to myself, Does not this arise from the disbelief of the doctrine of original sin, from forgetting that "that which is born of the flesh is flesh," John iii. 6; and "that we are by nature the children of wrath?" Ephes. ii. 3. How much mischief has arisen from this! The writer of that epitaph must have been ignorant of the doctrines of our reformers, grounded on scripture truth, agreeably to which, they spoke of original sin as "the fault and corruption of the nature of every descendant of Adam, whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil, so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the Spirit, and therefore in every person born into the world it deserveth God's wrath and damnation." Here the question is simplified; there is no occasion to sit in judgment on the relative perfection of any party; there is no need to compare one frail mortal with another, and set up a standard of ideal worth, or comparative excellence. Referring to this, there is no room left for fond parents to deceive themselves, or to regard those as cruel who would call their attention to the truth, or to accuse a kind adviser of disparaging what is comparatively excellent and amiable. The danger is shown, and the remedy is not distant.

The advice of the apostle is applicable to all, "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ,

and thou shalt be saved." This is the only way of salvation, faith in Him who died for sinners, the Just for the unjust, that we might be brought near to God. In him alone is there forgiveness of sins, and all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God. The ministers of Christ tell us of this, they deliver their Master's message, they pray us, in Christ's stead, "Be ye reconciled to God. For he hath made him to be sin (or a sin-offering) for us, who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him." 2 Cor. v. 20, 21. It is only when clothed in the righteousness of Christ, that guilty, sinful man can stand with acceptance before the judgment-seat; being made partakers of that righteousness,

Bold we shall stand in that great day, And none aught to our charge shall lay. Would that every parent and every instructor had these truths deeply impressed upon their minds. How anxious then would they be for the welfare of those committed to their care! how earnest in their endeavours to root out the plants of bitterness! how watchful against their first appearance! and how earnest in their prayers for the influences of the Holy Spirit upon the opening mind! Never would they be called to the bitter agony of watching by the dying couch of a youthful charge, and hearing the last bitter shriek of agony, or the deeply-wounding reproach, that those whose duty it was to instruct, had hid the things of peace from the sufferer's eyes! But let us not dwell on such a painful supposition, though, alas, too often it is realized. And let us be found watchful to impart that knowledge which makes wise to salvation, before the night of death makes it too late.

I know not the history of the individual whose monumental inscription has called forth these remarks. I would readily believe her to have been all that affectionate parents could desire; nay, I would believe her to have been a child of God; still every true protestant must realize the title he glories in, and protest against the doctrine her epitaph conveys; nay, if she were herself renewed in heart, she would have been most anxious that no such declaration should have been made respecting her; and if she were not of that number, painful thought! she knows its fallacy now. I have referred to the reformers of the English church, for their views of the scripture doctrine on this subject. Indeed human authority need not be appealed to, since "it is written;" but I will not close these remarks without giving an apposite

quotation from one of the early fathers of the church. Augustine says, "Who shall inform me of the sin of my infancy? For none is clear from sin in thy sight, not even the infant, whose life is only one day. Could it be right in me to solicit, with tears, what it would be noxious to receive? To express vehement indignation against my parents and betters, if they did not comply with my will; and to endeavour, though with feeble blows, to avenge myself upon them? The imbecility of my infant limbs was innocent, not so the spirit of the infant; I have seen and observed an infant full of envy, pale with anger, he looked at his fellow-suckling with bitterness in his countenance. Since I was conceived in iniquity, and my mother nourished me in sin, where, Lord, where, or when was I innocent? A TRAVELLER.

INSECTS. No. XXXII. (Their Expansion.)

a Twenty-plume moth.

Ditto magnified. In the last paper we alluded to the rapid expansion and developement of the wings of insects; we must now explain more particularly the cause in operation. Every wing consists of two membranes, more or less transparent, applied to each other: the upper membrane being very strongly attached to a number of hollow vessels, miscalled nervures; and the lower adhering more loosely, so as to be separable from them. These nervures originate in the trunk; and, with the exception of the marginal ones, keep diminishing gradually to their termination. The vessels contained in the nervures consist of a spiral thread, whence they appear to be air-vessels, communicating with the tracheæ or air-vessel in the trunk. The expansion of the wing, at the will of the insect, arises from a subtle fluid which is introduced into these nervures.

In the pupa, the two membranes, composing the wing, do not touch each other's

inner surface, as they afterwards do; there is, therefore, a space between them; and being moist, and corrugated into a vast number of folds, like those of a fan, transversely as well as longitudinally, and so minute as to be imperceptible to the naked eye, the wings appear much thicker than afterwards. Now, as soon as the insect is disclosed, this fluid enters the tubes, and being impelled into their minutest ramifications, necessarily expands their folds, and, as they gradually extend in length, the moist membranes attached to them are also unfolded aud extended. In proportion as this takes place, the expanding membranes approach each other; and, at last, being dried by the action of the atmosphere, become one. To promote this action of the fluid, seems the object of the agitations which the animal gives from time to time to its unexpanded wings.

That the injection of an aqueous fluid into these organs, actually takes place, has been fully proved by experiment. The wings of a butterfly have been clipped during their expansion, and then it has been seen, that the nervures were not only hollow, but that, however dry and empty they may afterwards be found, they

contained at that time such a fluid.

The blood in the bee, Swammerdam says, when the wing is cut, "appearing, by reason of the extreme smallness of the blood-vessels, under the form of little pellucid globules, which insensibly, and by degrees, increase into considerable little drops. The wings of the bee have likewise many pulmonary tubes; which, when the nymph is casting its last skin, have also, together with all the other parts, once more to throw off their exuviæ or coverings. After this, when these tubes are again distended by the freshly impelled air, and the air-vessels, which have previously been contracted, are inflated and distended with the same air, it follows, that the whole wing afterwards expands itself, and becomes thrice, nay, four times larger than it was before. This expansion of the wings, then, depends both on the impulsion of the air and of the blood; for, at the same time when the air is impelled into the wings, a considerable quantity of blood is likewise driven into the vessels of the wings."

"The female bees," he adds, "do not, as the common bees and the male, come forth with their wings folded up, but expanded and displayed, and in a state ready for flight. On this account, the all-wise

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Jurine found, that every nervure contains a trachea or air-tube, which, proceeding from the interior of the trunk, in a serpentine direction, follows all the ramifications of the nervures, though it does not fill it. Reaumur attributes the expansion of the wings chiefly to an aqueous fluid; yet, he suspects that the air, on some occasions, contributes to it.

This tubular structure has an interesting analogy in the case of birds. In them, the lungs have several openings, communicating with corresponding air-bags, or cells, which fill the whole cavity of the body, from the neck downwards, and into which the air passes and re-passes in the process of breathing. Nor is this all; the very bones of birds are hollowed out, with the design of receiving air from the lungs, from which air-pipes are conveyed to the most solid parts of the body, and even into the quills and plumelets of the feathers, which are hollow or spongy for its reception.

The expansion of the whole insect is, in some instances, very remarkable. When, for example, the ant-lion is about to change into a pupa, it constructs a cocoon of sand, which it lines with a beautiful tapestry of silk, the whole being less than half an inch in diameter; the pupa itself, when rolled up, filling only a space of about half this size. When it has remained in the cocoon about three weeks, it breaks through the envelope, and emerges to the outside, as the chrysalides of the wood-birds make their way to the exterior of a tree, to facilitate the exit of the perfect insect; with this difference, that the creature, whose operations we are now describing, makes use of its mandibles, or jaws, to gnaw the cocoon. Having arrived at the outside, it only requires to expand its wings and its body, to complete its transformation; but this process is very amazing; for though, on emerging, the creature is not more than half an inch in length, it almost instantaneously stretches out to an inch and a quarter; while its wings, which did not

exceed the sixth of an inch, expand to nearly three inches. In another case, the cocoon is not bigger than a small pea, while the body of the fly is nearly half an inch in length, and covers, when its wings and antennæ are expanded, a surface of an inch square.

THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH. No. II.

(Continued from page 42.)

DOCTOR EDMUND HALLEY, celebrated as the first astronomer who successfully predicted the return of a comet (in the year 1759) which is now called after his name, and is the same which is expected to return to its perihelion, and become visible to the inhabitants of the earth in a few months, was appointed the successor of Flamsteed; but upon taking possession of the observatory, he had to apply to the government to furnish him with instruments to make observations with, those which Flamsteed had used having been removed by his widow as the private property of her husband, he having in his lifetime defrayed the whole expense of their construction, and in part made them himself, with the help of his assistant, Mr. Abraham Sharpe, with the exception of a few which had been presented to him by his friend and patron, Sir Jonas Moore. After considerable delay, and the government failing in compelling Mrs. Flamsteed to restore at least those which had been the donation of Sir Jonas, a sum of money was granted for the construction of instruments, and an iron-framed mural quadrant was made and erected in 1725 by Mr. Graham, the celebrated clock-maker of that time. A transit instrument, of rather singular construction, was also fitted up; this and the mural quadrant are still preserved at the observatory as astronomical curiosities.

Dr. Halley was born at Haggerstone, in the parish of St. Leonard, Shoreditch, October 29, 1656; he received his early education at St. Paul's school, which he completed at the university of Oxford. At the early age of nineteen, he gave to the world the first of those useful observations and discoveries, which he continued to make to the end of a very long life. In 1676, when only twenty years of age, he proceeded, on his own account, to the island of St. Helena, for the purpose of making astronomical observations in the southern hemisphere, and in the short space of two years, he returned with a large catalogue of stars, which were invisible to astronomers in

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