LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. LVI. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. the two great classes of Prepositions of Motion, and Prepositions of Rest; a third class ensues from combination, and these are caller Prepositions of Motion and Rest, being applicable to both. Ther thus arises this classification : OF REST. for from in near of PREPOSITIONS OF MOTION. about across OF REST AND MOTION. about above across beside by against concerning along during among against along among except athwart athwart regarding on save upon round The prepositions thus arranged may be put into other classes. There are the monosyllabic, namely, at, by, for, from, in, near, of, IN the universe, and in human life, things stand not apart and alone, but are connected together, and act one upon another. This system of mutual dependence is conceived of by the mind, and finds utterance in our words. If the utterance is a suitable and sufficient utterance, language must represent the reciprocal relations that exist everywhere. Language does express those relations. Dependence exists in language as much as in the universe. The object depends on its verb; the possessive case depends on its noun; nouns generally depend also on prepositions. The dependence of nouns on prepositions is an essential element in language. If I say "I go," I make a scarcely intelligible statement, but if I say "I go to school," I make a full statement, and am understood. Remove the "to," the sentence is incomplete. I have uttered no idea. To is a preposition, hence you see that in certain forms of words prepositions are necessary to the sense. Here the relation marked by the preposition is the relation of a verb to a noun. How does go stand related to school? In the preposition to the answer is found. Instead of to the preposition might be from, or out of, still the relation of the verb go to the noun school depends for its character on the preposition. Not wholly or exclusively does the relation depend on the preposition. In part the relation depends on the verb. In full, then, the relation depends on the verb and on the preposition. The preposition supplements the verb. The preposition supplies that of which the verb fails. The preposition defines the exact relation of the verb to the noun. Hence the preposition might be considered as a part of the verb; and the verb, instead of being a simple word, might be regarded as a compound word, thus: Ion, save, since, through, till, to, up, with. Of these, all except near, go-to school," "I come-from school." Were the verbs so regarded, save, since, and till, are original and proper prepositions; that is, school would then be simply the object to the compound verbs I prepositions properly so called, and nothing but prepositions. Of go-to, I come from. Such is the case in Greek and Latin. In the the excepted words, near is an adjective, save is a verb, since and latter language, for instance, the preposition enters as a prefix into till adverbs of time or conjunctions. From the monosyllabic or combination with the verb, and the two in combination govern their primitive prepositions, compound or derivative prepositions are case, that is, simply, and in virtue of their own power, take an formed; as, from in and to, into; from on and up, upon. Other prepoobject. I may make this clear by an instance: in Latin deprimo Several of the compound prepositions are used as adverbs, that is, sitions are compounds; as, about, above, across, against, along, &c. means I sink, thus, deprimere navem is to sink a vessel; here deprimo governs its case navem, as if it were a simple word; it is they are taken with the verb rather than with the noun; e. g., "he in reality a compound word, made up of the preposition de, down, Five words given in the lists as prepositions, are strictly present ran-about," "he went-above," "the ship sailed-along swiftly. used as a prefix, and premo, I press, so that the compound means I press down. But take the English press down separately, and participles, namely, concerning, during, regarding, respecting, neither of the parts expresses the idea of sinking; it is only the touching. Two are verbs in the imperative mood, that is, save and combination of the two that is equivalent to the simple verb to the compounds, the derivation of some is very clear; e. g., within except (sometimes the participial form excepting is preferred). Of is with and in; without, with and out; beyond, be (by), and yon These observations may suffice to explain the general character and office of prepositions. A preposition, then, expresses, or aids (yonder); across is a, on and cross; along is on, and long. to express, the relation which exists between a verb and a noun. Under the guidance of this definition we should expect to find a verb wherever a preposition is used. The expectation is just. Wherever you have a preposition, you must have a verb either expressed or understood. The term verb is here used in its widest acceptation. The term verb includes what may be called verbal phrases, such as adjectives and parts of the verb to be; e. g., "he is fit for nothing," " they are ready to die," "is fit for," and "are ready to" are verbal phrases or forms, and include each a preposition. Verbal nouns, or nouns in which action is implied, may also have prepositions after them; e. g., sink. The going down to the town was more difficult than the going up to the citadel. Going down (better written going-down) and going up denote motion, and are verbal nouns; consequently they have after them the preposition to. In some instances the verbal action is concealed; e. g., The way to London is long and difficult. But here the action of a verb is implied; in full the phrase would The origin of those prepositions, the origin of which we can trace, suggests hints as to the origin of others. In the lists there are, we have seen, prepositions which were at first parts of verbs, such as touching and save. Probably, therefore, all prepositions may at one time have been parts of verbs; at, for instance, seems connected with a Hebrew word similar in form, which signifies to go; and through, with a Gaelic word similar in form, which signifies to pierce. If prepositions have a verbal origin, their verbal connexion and force receive illustration. At first, prepositions had reference to place, their application being exclusively to physical objects; only by degrees did they come to be turned away from the physical to intellectual or moral objects. In the following sentence I have comprised the primitive prepositions so as to show their application to physical objects: The new settler at the river, in the fear of an enemy's coming is arms from their camp through the forest, with fugitive slaves, to carry fire and sword up and down the land, has at length prudently rebuilt for a fort the house lately destroyed by fire. Among physical objects, place was that of which prepositions were The prepositions that are undeclined apply to physical objects. originally employed. Thus we say, "the man is at home;" "fish are in the sea;"; "the possessor of the castle;" "the barn goes with the farm;" "the cows went to the milk-pail;" "the nurse took the sick child up stairs at night, and brought it down in the Through is, in our opinion, from the Greek Thura, (German Thur Sanscrit Dodr, English Door,) a door of a room or a house, a gate, ar entrance, i.e. anything we go through.-ED. refinement. Besides prepositions, properly so called, there are what I may term prepositional phrases-forms of words, that is, which in their combined effect have the force of prepositions. Take, for instance, the set of words "with respect to ; you may either parse these words separately, or you may consider them as a whole. If you take them as a whole, you may call them a prepositional phrase. So with the phrase "in consequence of." The prepositional force of these forms of words depends mainly on the preposition to or of, which stands at the end. I give a number of According to, In this house Which I have borrowed from My brethren, the worms, Lie I Samuel, by divine permission, Bishop of this island. Stop, reader; Behold and smile at The Palace of a Bishop! Who died May 30, In the year 1653. SPECIMEN OF PARSING. Errors, to be dangerous, must have a great deal of truth mingled with them; it is only from this alliance that they can obtain circulation. Errors, a common noun, of the neuter gender, the plural number, Be, a vero, in the abstract or indefinite form, commonly called Dangerous, an adjective, agreeing with errors. Let it, then, be observed, that a noun may be dependent on a Have, a verb, in the infinitive mood, dependent on must. preposition; for example : "I know of no principle which it is of more importance to fix in the minds of young people than that of the most determined resistance to the encroachments of ridicule. Give up to the world, and to the ridicule with which the world enforces its dominion, every trifling question of manner and appearance; it is to toss courage and firmness to the winds, to combat with the mass upon such subjects as these. But learn from the earliest days to insure your principles against the perils of ridicule: you can no more exercise your reason, if you live in the constant dread of laughter, than you can enjoy your life if you are in the constant terror of death. If you think it right to differ from the times, and to make a stand for any valuable point of morals, do it, however rustic, however antiquated, however pedantic it may appear; do it, not for insolence, but seriously and grandly-as a man who wore a soul of his own in his bosom and did not wait till it was breathed into him by the breath of fashion. Let men call you mean, if you know you are just; hypocritical, if you are honestly religious; pusillanimous, if you feel that you are firm. Resistance soon converts unprincipled wit into sincere respect; and no aftertime can tear from you those feelings which every man carries with him who has made a noble and successful exertion in a virtuous cause.-Sydney Smith. In Saint Germain's, in the Isle of Man, the following singular epitaph is yet to be seen, in Latin, over the tomb of Dr. Samuel Rutter, formerly prebendary of Litchfield, and afterwards Bishop of Sodor and Man: A, the indefinite article. Great, an adjective, formed by er and est; as, great, greater, Deal, a noun, of Saxon origin, the object to the verb have. tion of. Truth, an abstract noun, governed by or dependent on the preposiMingled, a passive participle, from the verb to mingle; mingled stands in agreement with truth, or, rather, a deal of truth. It, Is, a personal pronoun, of the neuter gender, singular number, the subject to the verb is. a verb, from to be, present time, agreeing with its subject it. Only, an adverb. From, a preposition, governing alliance. This, a demonstrative pronoun, singular number (plural, these), in That, a conjunction. They, a personal pronoun, neuter gender, because errors, to which it refers, is in the neuter gender, third person plural, the subject to the verb can. Can, a verb, of the present tense, agreeing with its subject they. Obtain, a verb, in the infinitive mood, depending on can. Circulation, a noun neuter, the object to the verb obtain. Un savant connaît un ignorant, parce qu'il a été ignorant; mais un ignorant ne peut pas juger d'un savant, parce qu'il n'a jamais été savant.-Maximes des Orientaux. Celui qui souhaiterait sérieusement des illusions aurait au-delà de ses vœux.-Vauvenargues. C'est le rôle d'un sot d'être importun; un homme habile sent s'il convient ou s'il ennuic: il sait disparaître le moment qui précède celui où il serait de trop quelque part.-La Bruyére. La véritable indépendance repose dans ces trois mots francais que j'ai toujours admirés: Vivre de peu. Vivre de peu! voilà le meilleur préservatif contre l'esclavage, et ce précepte ne se rapporte pas seulement aux vêtements, à la nourriture, mais à bien d'autres choses.-W. Cobbett. Chacun a son fardeau, chacun a ses défauts: nul ne se suffit á soi-même, et n'est assez sage pour soi-même; mais nous devons nous supporter, nous consoler, nous aider, nons instruire, et nous avetir mutuellement.-Thomas à Kempis. Le cœur de l'ingrat est semblable à un désert qui boit avidement la pluie tombée du ciel, l'engloutit et ne produit rien.Maximes des Orientaux. LESSONS IN GERMAN.-No. LVII. $46 DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS. THE distributives, which answer to the question: "How many at a time?" are formed, as in English, by coupling cardinals with the conjunction unt, and; or by using before them the particle je (ever; at a time); thus, zwei und zwei, two and two, or je zwei, two at a time; drei und trei, three and three, or je trei, three at a time, &c. $ 48. VARIATIVE NUMERALS. Variatives, which answer to the question: "Of how many kinds?" are formed from the cardinals by affixing lei (a sort or kind), the syllable er being inserted for the sake of euphony; thus, einerlei, of one kind; zweierlei, of two kinds; breierlei, of three kinds; Sechziger, (sixtier), a sexagenarian, or one of a company of Elfer, (eleven-er) wine of the year 1811; $ 52. PARTITIVES OR FRACTIONALS. Under this name (partitives) are embraced a class of neuter nouns, answering to the question: "What part?" which are formed by affixing to the ordinals the suffix tel (part): thus (1) The indefinite numerals, which are, for the most part, used and inflected as adjectives, are commonly divided into such as serve to indicate NUMBER, such as merely denote QUANTITY, and such, finally, as are employed to express BOTH. Those denoting number only, are the following: leder, jede, jetes, each, every ; viererlei, of four kinds; jeglicher -e, -es, fünfertei, of five kinds; -es, mancherlei, of many kinds; &c. jetweter, -e, mancher, manche, manches, many a; many (in the plural). mehrere, several; plural of mehr, more. $49. DIMIDIATIVE NUMERALS. The dimidiatives, which answer to the question: "Which (i. e. which of the numbers) is but a half?" are formed from the ordinals by annexing the word balb (half); thus, zweitehalb, the second half, that is, one whole and a half; 1. trittehalb, the third half, i. c. two wholes and a half; 24. viertebalb, the fourth half, i. e. three wholes and a half; 3; &c. $ 50. ITERATIVE NUMERALS. } old and unusual forms of jeder. (2) Those denoting quantity only, are the following: twas, some; which is indeclinable. gang, the whole, as opposed to a part; declined generally like an adjective; indeclinable, however, when placed before neuter names of places and not preceded by an article or pronoun; as, ganz Deutschland, all Germany; (with the article or pronoun preceding) tas ganze Deutschland, the whole of Germany; fein ganzer Reichtbum, his whole riches. halb, half, follows the same law, in declension, as the word ganz above. (3) Those denoting both number and quantity, are the following: The iteratives, which answer to the question: "How often, or how many times?" are formed from cardinals and from indefi-aller, alle, alles, all; applied to quantity, in the singular nite numerals, by the addition of the word mal (time); thus, only; as, aller Reichthum, all riches; alle Macht, all power; alles Gold, all gold; dieses alles (not alle) will ich geben, all this will I give; welches alles, all which. Placed before a pronoun, which is followed by a noun, the terminations of declension are often omitted; as, all (for alles) dieses Gelb, all this money; all (for aller) dieser Bein, all this wine. In the neuter of the singular, it often denotes an indefinite number or amount; as, alles, was reisen kann, reiset, all that can travel, do travel; er scheint alles zu wissen, he seems to know everything. In the plural, the word denotes number; as alle Menschen, all men; an allen Orten, in all places :-it is never used in the sense of whole, which is expressed by ganz; as, der ganze Tag, the whole day; nor is it followed, as in English, by the definite article; as, alles Gelt, (not alles das Gelt), all the money;-finally, the phrases "all of us," "all of you," &c., are in German: wir alle, we all, &c. The plural is used like our word every; as, ich gehe alle Tage, I go every day. einiger, einige, einiges, some; few; applied to number etlicher, -e, -es, some; synonymous with einiger. no; none; declined like ein, eine, ein, ne; as, fein Vater, no father; feine Mutter, no mother; fein Kind, no child; when employed as a noun, it takes the old form of declension; as, feiner der alten Verehrer, none of the ancient worshippers. gesammter, number as individuals, it is regularly declined: as, vieler, viele, und unser Unmuth oft die Thränen des Kindes, und vieles, &c.; thus, viele Männer find träge, many men are indolent; ŏŏnt ŏon-zer ŏon'-moot oft dee trai'-nen dess kin'-des, ŏŏnt er hat sehr viele Freunde und ich habe auch viele, he has a great unser Wünschen und Verlangen, gleichet es nicht oftmany friends and I have also a great many. wenig, little; (in the plural) few; follows the same rules of ŏon'-zer vün'-shen ŏŏnt ferr-lång'-en, gli'-chet ess nicht oftmals Polly's Träumen? mehr, more; are indeclinable; for the plural of mehr, how-måhlss pol'-leess troi'-men? weniger, less; inflection as viel above. } ever, see above. genug, enough; sufficient; never declined; Gelb genug, money Lauter, merely; only; never declined lauter Kupfer, copper Bolly aber war noch immer sehr betrübt um die zwölf Schäfchen. Da berathschlagten shaif'-den. Dåh bai-råht'-slåhd-ten tswölf vie Eltern erhob ernstlich, was zu thun sei, und der Vater LESSONS IN GERMAN PRONUNCIATION.—No. IV sich und sprach: Polly, ich will gehen Der Morgentraum. und beine zid ŏŏnt språhd: Pol'-lee, ich vill gey'-hen ŏŏnt di'-nai Schäfchen suchen. Und er ging und kaufte ein Lamm låm shaif-den zoo'-chen. ŏŏnt air ghink ŏŏnt kouf-tai ine Knabe es so, daß der und brachte es und stellte öönt brách-tai ess ŏŏnt stell'-tai ess zo, dass dair knåh'-bai es sah. Da ward der Knabe sehr erfreut und lief Fam des Ein kleiner Knabe, Namens Leopold, Ine kli'-ner knåh'-bai, nåh'-mens ley'-o-polt, kåhm dess bernieder Morgens aus seinem Schlaffämmerlein ouss zi'-nem shlåhf-kem-mer-line morg'-enss hair-nee'-der und weinte bitterlich, also daß ihm die Thränen über öönt vine'-tai bit'-ter-lich, al'-zo dass eem dee trai'-nen ü'-ber hin-tsoo' oont herrts'-tai dåss lem'-en oont språhd: Yah, die Wangen liefen. dee vång'-en lee'-fen. Und sie oder frag= ess záh. Dåh vårt dair knåh'-bai zair err-froi't' ŏŏnt leef das Lämchen und sprach: und aber Sein Vater und seine das ist es, das ist es! ebenso sah es aus! und er Zine fåh'-ter åh'-ber ŏŏnt zi'-nai dåss ist ess, dåss ist ess! ai'-ben-zo záh ess ouss! ŏŏnt air Mutter traten denn sie meinten bestürzt hinzu, war sehr erfreut, aber von den eilf andern Lämmern moot'-ter tråh'-ten bai-stürtst' hin'-tsoo', den zee mine'-ten, våhr zair err-froi't', dh'-ber fon dain elf ån'-dern lem'-mern es sei dem Kinde ein großes Uebel begegnet, er nichts und begehrte ihrer nicht. ess zi dem kin'-dai ine gro'-ssess ü'-bel bai-gaich'-net, o'-der fagte zah'-tai air nichts ŏŏnt bai-gair'-tai ee'-rer nicht. heftige es sei frank und empfinde Schmerzen und Vater abermals Da lächelte der sagte ess zei kránk ŏont emp-fin'-dai hef'-tig-ai shmerrt'-sen ŏŏnt Dah ledh'-el-tai dair fah'-ter åh'-ber-måhlss ŏŏnt záhɖtai Reißen im Haupt oder in den Gliedern. ri'-ssen im houpt o'-der in dain glee'-dern. oont zee fråhd zu der Mutter: In Träumen und Thränen gleichen wir ten das Kind, und sprachen: Liebes Kind, was feblet tsoo dair moot-ter: In troi'-men oont trai'-nen gli'-den veer ten dåss kind, ŏŏnt språh'-den: Lee'-bess kint, våss fai'-let Großen wohl dem kleinen Polly. Möchten wir auch nur Da that gro'-ssen vole dem kli'-nen pol'-lee. Möd'-ten veer oud) noor dir, wer hat dir was zu Leide gethan? Genügsamkeit und bescheidener Freude an dem deer, vair håht deer våss tsoo li'-dai gai-táhn'? Dåh taht in das Kind seinen Mund auf und sprach: Ach ich hatte in gai-nü''-záhm-kite ŏont bai-shi'-den-er froi'-dai ån dem dåss kint zi'-nen moont ouf oont språhd: ach ich håt'-tai Kleinen und Wenigen ihm ähnlich sein. vorher zwölf niedliche weiße Schäfchen, und sie kli'-nen dont vai'-nig-en eem ain'-lichzine. Traum, m. dream fore-hair tswölf neet'-lich-chai vi'-ssai shaif'-chen, ŏŏnt zee bitterlich, bitter Da merkten die Eltern die Noth des Kindes und mountain cliffs under the slow powers of the chemistry of This débris, or the accumulation of fallen fragments, generally collects at the base of precipices and grows up in the form of a triangular heap, with one side of it resting on the face of the rock from which it has crumbled. The term Talus is borrowed from the language of fortification. In fortresses, some of the walls are built flat within, but with a gradual slope outwards, for the sake of giving them greater strength. It is this piece of sloping masonry that is called by military engineers a Talus. It is because the heap of ruined fragments, that have fallen from a rock, slopes away from the face of a steep cliff that it is called a Talus. Examples of such a Talus of Débris are usually most striking along the mural faces of trap-cliffs, as represented in fig. 78. |