the space of a mile, a miniature likeness of the Polar Sea. In that country, a range of mountains of only the height of Ben Lomond or Snowdon, that is, from 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, have every valley filled with glaciers descending to the coast. Almost every arm of the sea, which penetrates into the interior of the higher chain, not only in Terra del Fuego, but on the coast for six hundred and fifty miles northwards, is terminated by tremendous glaciers. Great masses of ice frequently fall from these icy cliffs, and the crash of their fall reverberates through the lonely channels, like the broadside of a man-of

war.

(1.) This tense denotes what exists, or is taking place at the time we speak :— I read; you speak. (2.) The French have only one form of the indicative present :

grande.

GIRAULT DUVIVIER,

In the Artic regions, the icebergs are snapped from the glaciers of the polar valleys by increased temperature, and by the action of spring tides; but in Terra del Fuego, Mr. Darwin Je lis means, therefore, I read, do read, or am reading. observed that this severance is sometimes produced by earth- (3.) The indicative present is used in French, as well as quakes. As earthquakes frequently cause masses of rock to in English, for expressing things which are and will always be fall from sea cliffs, the effects of these agents must be terrific true :on a body like a glacier, already in motion, and traversed by Dieu est éternel, sa puissance est God is eternal, his power is fissures. It can be readily imagined that by such an earth-sans bornes, et sa clémence est boundless, and his clemency is great. quake shock, the water of an arm of the sea would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest channel. This water would then return with an overwhelming force, and whirl about large masses of rock as if they were mere grains of chaff. In Eyre Sound there were seen about fifty icebergs floating outwards at one time, and one of them must have been at least 168 feet in total height. In the gulph of Penas, in lat. 46° 50', a glacier was found fifteen miles in length, and in one part seven miles broad, which reached to the sea

shore.

The distance to which icebergs are floated is as remarkable as their magnitude. In the northern hemisphere their extreme limit is lat. 40°, and they are occasionally seen in lat 42° N. near the termination of the great bank of Newfoundland, and at the Azores, in the same latitude, to which they are sometimes drifted from Baffin's Bay. In the southern hemisphere, icebergs, within the last five years, have been seen at different points off the Cape of Good Hope, between latitudes 36° and 39°. One of these was two miles in circumference and 150 feet above the water, appearing like chalk when the sun was obscured, and looking like refined sugar when the sun shone upon it. Others rose even to 300 feet above the level of the sea, they must, therefore, be of great volume below. These two facts from the northern and southern hemispheres show that the area, over which the effects of moving ice may be experienced, comprehends a large portion of the globe.

A knowledge of these facts connected with the formation of icebergs, and the distance to which they are drifted, is of great importance in geology. The application of these facts will be more fully explained in our next lesson. You have seen that as polar glaciers extend themselves not only to the sea coast, but also to a considerable distance in the sea, not only do the glaciers, in their descent from the glens and ravines, bring down stones and boulders, as was represented in our lessons upon glaciers, but the ice that stretches into the sea upon the coast must lay hold upon the masses of rock that lie at the bottom of such a frozen sea. When an iceberg is snapped from the parent glacier and floats, its lower surface takes up, as it rises in the water, the blocks and stones which it had imbedded when in the process of being formed. As such icebergs, charged with the fragments which the glacier had brought down from the polar mountains, and loaded with the blocks which have adhered to their lower surface, become drifted to lower latitudes and warmer seas, they melt away and deposit their loads of blocks and gravel at the bottom of the sea, or on the sides of banks, on which they have stranded. The application of these facts to the explanation of the phenomena of drifted gravel and erratic blocks, is called by geologists the Glacial Theory, and by some the Glacio-aqueous theory.

"Are mists begotten? who their father knew?
From whom descend the pearly drops of dew?
To bind the stream by night, what hand can boast ?
Or whiten morning, with the hoary frost?
Whose pow'rful breath, from northern regions blown,
Touches the sea, and turns it into stone?
A sudden desert spread o'er realms defaced,
And lays one-half of the creation waste?"

(4.) It is often used to express
Je suis de retour dans un mo-
MOLIÈRE.

ment.

Si Titus a parlé, s'il l'épouse, je

pars.

RACINE.

a proximate future :

I shall be back in a moment.

If Titus has spoken, if he marries her, I go (will go).

attention, and place the event, as it were, before the reader:(5.) The present is frequently used for the past, to awaken J'ai vu, Seigneur, j'ai vu votre

malheureux fils,

I saw, my lord, I saw your unfortunate son dragged by the horses which his own hand has fed; he wishes to recall them, but his voice

frightens them.

384

(3.) The imperfect may almost always be rendered in Engush by the participle present of the verb and the auxiliary to be; or by prefixing "used to" to the infinitive mood. The preterite definite can never be so rendered.

(4.) The imperfect might be called the descriptive tense of the French.

(5.) The past definite might be called the narrative tense. It expresses that which took place at some time fully past.

We will endeavour to illustrate this difference between these two tenses.-A traveller has entered a wood and discovered a retired cottage; he wishes to describe what he saw there, and makes use of the imperfect or descriptive tense; he says:

Un vieillard se promenit sous les arbres; il tenait un livre à la main; de temps en temps, il élevait les yeux vers le ciel, ou les couvrait de la main, et semblait s'abîmer dans une profonde rêverie. Devant la porte de la cabane était assise une femme qui berçait un enfant sur ses genoux; elle était pâle; ses cheveux flottaient au gré du vent; des larmes coulaient le long des ses joues, &c.

An old man was walking under
the trees; he held (was holding) a
book in his hand; from time to time
he raised his eyes towards heaven,
or concealed them with his hand, and
seemed to sink into
revery. Before the door of the hut,
a profound
sat (was sitting) a female rocking
(who was rocking) a child on her
knees; she was pale; her hair waved
(was waving) at the mercy of the
wind; tears flowed (were flowing)
down her cheeks.

The traveller has here drawn a picture of what presented itself to his eyes as he approached the cottage. Not content with representing merely the then present situation of things, he wishes also to narrate what took place. He has described the theatre on which the occurrence took place, which he is going to relate; he now proceeds to the narrative, and uses the past definite or narrative tense :

Je m'approchai du vieillard; lorsqu'il m'aperçut, il s'avança vers moi, me salua, et me pria de ne pas troubler cette paisible retraite du malheur. Il retourna à la cabane, prit l'enfant des bras de la femme, et rentra; elle le suivit, &c.

I approached the old man; when
he perceived me he came towards
me, greeted me, and besought me not
to disturb this peaceful retreat of
the unfortunate. He returned to

|
the cottage, took the child from the
woman's arms, and went in; she fol-
lowed him.

Another example might be taken from La Fontaine's wellknown fable :

LE CORBEAU ET LE RENARD. Maître corbeau sur un arbre perché,

Tenait en son bec un fromage;

THE RAVEN AND THE FOX. Master raven perched upon a tree, held (was holding) in his beak a cheese; master fox, attracted by the

Maître renard, par l'odeur alléché, smell, addressed him nearly in the

Lui tint à peu près ce langage.

following words.

Here the poet uses the imperfect of tenir in describing the situation in which the fox found the raven, but in relating the action of the fox, La Fontaine uses the narrative tense of the same verb.

The commencement of the first book of Télémaque offers an excellent illustration of what we have here advanced on the use of the imperfect and the past definite.

§ 121.-THE PAST INDEFINITE,

(1.) The past indefinite expresses an action entirely completed, but performed at a time of which some part is not yet elapsed, as, to-day, this month, this year, &c. :

Le roi m'a nommé aujourd'hui archevêque de Cambray.

FénéLON.

Ce matin j'ai trouvé le pavé si glissant, que j'ai pensé que si je venais à tomber sur le bras droit, Je serais tout à fait désemparé.

BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE. Je t'ai défendu (see (2.) below) cent fois de racler ton méchant violon; cependant, je t'ai entendu ce matin.-Ce matin? Ne vous souvient-il pas que vous me le miles [§ 120 (2.)] hier en pièces?

PALAPRAT.

:

Past Definite.
m'écrivit une lettre.
Huit jours après son départ, il

BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE.
wrote me a letter.
A week after his departure, he

cousine, de vous avoir quittée avec
Je fus bien faché hier, ma chère
tant de précipitation. FénéLON.
I was very sorry yesterday, my
so much haste.
dear cousin, for having left you in

Past Indefinite.
Je vous ai écrit, il y a quinze
jours.
THE SAME.

I wrote to you a fortnight ago.

triéme dialogue, j'ai éprouvé un Hier en travaillant à mon quavrai plaisir.

MIRABEAU. fourth dialogue, I experienced real Yesterday, while working at my pleasure.

indefinite, every other verb of that sentence, and of the sen-
(4.) When the first verb of a sentence is put in the past
tences referring to it, should be in the same tense :-
Où avez-vous été ?
Where have you been?

je

suis venu dîner.
J'ai d'abord été à l'église, ensuite

I first went to church; and then came home to dinner.

§ 122.-THE PAST ANTERIOR.

another event which is also past: the latter event being usually The past anterior expresses what took place immediately before the result of, or dependent upon the former :

Quand j'eus reconnu mon erreur, je fus honteux des mauvais procédés que j'avais eus pour lui. GIRAULT DUVIVIER. See (3.) of the § below.

I was ashamed of my bad conduct
When I had perceived my error,

towards him.

(1.) The future simple is used to signify what will be, or will The king appointed me to-day take place, at a time not yet come:archbishop of Cambray. Votre frère partira demain. 1 Your brother will go to-morrow. in cases where the English use the present of the indica(2.) The future is used, in French, after an adverb of time, tive:

Pensez-vous que vous réussissiez dans cette affaire?

Je ne voudrais pas assurer, qu'on le doive écrire. BOILEAU. Croyez-vous qu'il vienne?

2. When the verb preceding doubt, desire, surprise, want, duty, Je permets, je souhaite, je doute, Je veux, j'ordonne, je suis surpris que vous veniez.

Dès ce même moment, ordonnez que je parte. RACINE.

Tu veux, qu'en ta faveur nous croyions l'impossible.

CORNEILLE. Je suis ravi, que nous logions ensemble. DESTROUCHES.

:

Do you think that you will suc-
ceed in this affair?
I would not afirm, that it should

be written.

Do you believe he will come?
que expresses consent, command,
necessity, fear, apprehension:-
1 permit, I wish, I doubt, 1 de-
sire, I order, I am surprised, that
you may or should come.

Order, that I may depart this very

moment.

Thou wishest that for thy sake we may believe in impossibilities.

The best thing that you can do.

Choose a retreat in which you may enjoy repose.

Choisissez une retraite où vous soyez tranquille. (4.) A verb preceded by que, and one of the unipersonal verbs falloir, importer, convenir, suffire, valoir, mieux, or by the verb étre, used unipersonally in connexion with the adjectives fâcheux, juste, injuste, surprenant, possible, or with à propos, temps, à désirer, à souhaiter, &c., must be put in the subjunctive [see S. 72, R. 1.]:—

Il faut que vous veniez.

Il est temps que vous partiez pour Rome.

You must come, or it is necessary that you should come.

It is time that you should go to Rome.

It does not please me that you should go there.

It is not certain that you are right.

Il ne me plait pas, que vous alliez là. L'ACADÉMIE. Il n'est pas certain, que vous ayez raison. (5.) After the expressions quelque... que, quel, que, si ... que, quoique, the verb is always put in the subjunctive :Quelqu'effort que fassent les hommes, leur néant parait partout. BOSSUET. Qui que ce soit, parlez et ne le craignez pas, RACINE. Si mince qu'il puisse être, un cheveu fait de l'ombre.

VILLEFRé.

Whatever effort men may make, their nothingness appears everywhere.

Whoever he may be, speak, and do not fear him.

However thin it may be, a hair has a shadow.

(6.) For the other conjunctions which must be followed by the subjunctive, see § 143.

A KEY TO THE EXERCISES IN THE
LATIN LESSONS.

By JOHN R. Beard, D.D.
(Continued from page 359, I ol. III.)
Page 307, col. 2, vol. II.

Esop's Fables.

THE DOG GIVEN TO BITING.

The father of a family ordered a brass bell to be hung to the neck of a dog which was given to biting, in order that all persons might avoid him. But he was rejoiced at the tinkling of the brass, and, as if it were a reward for his excellence, began in consequence to despise other dogs in comparison with himself. When an old dog said to him, "Thou fool! dost thou not know that by the tinkling thy bad habit of biting is proclaimed?" This fable is written against those who take pleasure in the tokens of their disgrace.

THE DOG AND THE WOLF.

A wolf seeing a well-fed dog, said, "How happy you are! you, it seems, live bravely while (ut) I am worn down with hunger." The dog replied, "You may, if you will, come into the town with me, and enjoy the same good fortune." The wolf accepted the offer. As they go along together, the wolf notices that the hair is worn off the dog's neck. "What," asked he, is this? Do you wear the yoke? why, your whole neck is bare." "It is nothing at all," answered the dog. "Only sometimes they tie me up to make me more watchful by night, and these are the marks of the collar which they put round my neck." Then the wolf spake and said, "Farewell, my friend! I have no 'aste for happiness which must be I fear, I tremble, I apprehend, I purchased with my freedom." This fable shows that to the free no am afraid he may come. advantage can be sufficiently valuable to compensate for the calamity of servitude.

THE HUSBANDMAN AND THE SNAKE.

A husbandman found a snake which was almost dead from cold. Moved with pity, he cherished the animal and put it into his bosom. The snake was soon restored; when recovering its strength, it inflicted a deadly wound on the man in return for his benefit. This fable shows what return the ill-disposed are wont to make for the favours they receive.*

Page 321, col. 2, vol. II,-LATIN-ENGLISH.

A painting adorns the house; we salute our parents; I have asked for my book; the stars surpass the earth in magnitude; men are satisfied with food; this sparrow has been killed by a hawk; the human body is best strengthened by labour; we are loved by God, and we have always been loved by him; often is an army saved by the valour of one soldier; kings were formerly created by the people; the wretched console themselves with the hope of better times; elephants of a very large size wander in the forests and on the mountains of India; chariots are driven four in hand; Coelius, as he kept saying, went to Cæsar; the mind which consists of air on fire, seeks loftier (regions); he frequently supped alone at my father's; the hawk is accustomed to drive about trembling doves; there is a hope that we are about to be hungry; all in joy obey the command and execute the orders; thou thyself wilt begin to fear lest thou shouldst bring danger on an innocent man; he chooses smiths from the legions, and orders others to be sent for from the continent; of what good man did he ever speak ill? he spoke favourably? Yes! what good and brave citizen has he not most impudently assailed? I wish you to come to me; they went into the island; how foolish is it, when you have received the signal for battle, to brandish your arms! Juba (not juba) the king's son flits about before their eyes; it is not easy for a human being to fly with wings.

Page 321, col. 2, vol. II.-ENGLISH-LATIN. Picturis domus ornatur; volant aves; volitant aves; pennis volare possum; mihi, innocenti, periculum fecit; duci benedixit; edendine est spes? hostem agitat; in sylva vagatur elephas; bonos Deus amat; boni a Deo amantur; magnitudine terra stellis superatur; a parentibus salutamur; matrem salutavit puer; a rege arcessitus sum; ducem arcessivit rex; virtute exercitum liberavit dux; bonorum sapientia virorum mundus servatur; avunculi jussa juvenis facessit; cibo satiaris; labor agricolam roborat (or labor durat agricolam); labore durantur agricolae; passerem necavit accipiter; olim populus creavit reges.

Page 349, vol. II.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

Pythagoras travelled over Egypt, visited the priests of the Persians, and traversed on foot many barbarous lands; when the armies were on the point of joining battle, the commander-in-chief rode round the lines and exhorted the soldiers; after the river had been passed, a terrible fight began; he who despises death avoids death; there are many words and kinds of aspect which become the actor, not the orator; he is a true friend who conceals nothing from us; no poet seems to have been able to imitate Homer; the Tarquins devastated that part of the Roman territory which lay next to Etruria, on which account the Romans declared war against them; Sylla was the first that entered the city of Rome in arms; we are aware that the light which we enjoy, and the breath which we draw, are given us by God; Cicero relates that there were two Roman knights who promised Catiline to murder him (Cicero) by night; ambition is certainly a vice, nevertheless we often see it to be the mother of virtues; hope, full of belief, supports our life, and constantly declares that things will be better to-morrow; Viriathus carried on war against the Romans for fourteen years; Pythagoras was the first to pronounce himself a philosopher, that is, a lover of wisdom; Mount Olympus is very high; every animal is mortal; my father scolded me; geese do not fly; diligent men labour; good men love their parents and relatives; husbandmen i spring sow the seed; have you the books you want? lofty mountains check the force of the winds; the sun and moon fill the whole earth with their light; the leaves of this tree flourished in summer; we sit at banquets but the ancient Greeks and Romans reclined on couches; the world has been filled with various kinds of good by God; he fears many who is feared by many; the air is always in movement, but if it is moved violently, wind arises; a good man confesses his sins and does not conceal them; we cannot look at the sun with unclosed eyes.

Page 349, vol. II.-ENGLISH-LATIN. Regina invisit Scotos; bona omnia a Deo hominibus data esse intelligitis? se contra Catilinam orationem habuisse narrat Cicero;

Slight deviations from verbal closeness have been permitted for the sake of the English usage and as an example to the student.

pater patriae dictus est Cicero; Cicerone ait se patrem patriae dictum esse? honestum est dici patrem patriae; qui pater patriae dici vult, eum decet esse sapientissimum nobilissimumque; coenati cubitum ibimus; Tarquinienses quum devastâssent partem agri Romani, eis bellum Romani indixerunt; quis poetarum Homerum imitavit unquam? primus Homerus longum poema scripsit; bonis mundum implevit Deus; eane bonum decent? Persarum sacer dotes visitati sunt a Pythagore, qui multas terras peragravit; exercitum circumequitabit dux et milites hortabitur; verusne tibi est amicus? invenire verum amicum est difficile; mali perdifficile esse verum invenire amicum confirmant; boni a bonis amantur; totus mundus solis ac lunae repletus est luce.

Page 363, col. 2, vol. II.-LATIN-ENGLISH. of the district, lay under mount Paropamisus; Leonidas was king Athens was a city; Romulus was a king; Bactra, the chief place of the Spartans; Jugurtha led an army which attended to land and cattle rather than to war; money is a queen; pleasures are very winning mistresses; flatterers are a very base race of men; twenty ships, the fleet of the Romans, were impelled by oars; Pompey, our dear friend, will come; Corinth, the sun of all Greece, has been rased; death is the end of all things; Carthage and Corinth, most opulent cities, were overturned; not the sword but gold conquered the Lacedemonians, the bravest of mortals; philosophy, the discoverer of truth, is also the guide of character and discipline.

Page 363, col. 2, vol. II.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

dinum Angliae est caput; magistra Angliae est Londinum; aliarum Thebae, Boeotiae caput, sitae sunt sub monte Cithaerone; Lon virtutum generatrix est frugalitas; Scythi, bellicosissimi homines, pisce vescuntur; omnium mortalium bellicosissimi sunt Scythae victor omnium nationum est Populus Romanus; totius mundi caput erat Roma; Athenae olim artium erat domicilium, et nutrix philosophiae ac eloquentiae.

Page 364, col. 2, vol. II.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

these are the opinions respecting friendship; we declare this war I have taken up that defence which first offered itself to me; after Komana); my life is as dear to me as thine to thee; physicians against thee, O Roman youth (put a comma after tibi and another thine elude us? he trusts in this letter of mine that he will be well are un ble to cure themselves; how long will that madness of received by thee, a benevolent man; that notorious Catiline now lies cast on the ground; this Marcellus here, our friend, was present at the conversation; Catullus was instructed not after the oldfashioned way, but after the way we pursue; a certain peace is better than a hoped-for victory; the former is in thy hands, the latter is in the hands of the gods; sloth weakens the body, labour strengthens it; the former produces a premature old age, the latter a long youth; in which of us does not the famous (read ille) Epaminondas dying at Mantinea, excite delight mingled with admiration? Mithridates fled out of his kingdom in the way in which the notorious Medea is said to have formerly fled from the same (country of) Pontus; three hundred of us formed a conspiracy; these faults of character belong to old age; Epicurus (for he is your light) denies that any one can live happily who does not live honourably; Thebes, which is the chief city of Boeotiae, was in great confusion; the united abodes which we call cities; of arms and the man I sing who first came to Italy; we speak of those friends that are known in ordinary life; of the number of those who were consuls during those years, many are dead; if, as must indeed be, our native land affords us delight; I who give thee assurance cannot give myself any; the spot on which they first landed, is called Troy; I have received the letter which you sent me; we alone have the regulation of those very violent impulses which nature produced; in the same year Cumae, a city which the Greeks then held, is taken by the Campanians; it happened that it was full moon-a season which commonly renders the tides very great in the sea; Cæsar was aware that the day was at hand on which corn must be supplied to the soldiers; I hope, such is your prudence and temperance, that you now, as we wish, are in good health.

Page 365, col. 1, vol. II.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

Trecenti conspiravere; floret Londinum, Angliae caput; Athenae, Graeciae caput, deletae sunt; qui primus mihi lapis oblatus est accepi: Wellingtonus (Vellingtonus) ille jam in terrâ jacet; qui honeste vivit, vivit jucunde; omnem, qui tuus est honor, tibi do dedoque pecuniam; mala, id quod expectandum erat, bellum indictum intulit multa; quo tibi moriendum, dies est proximus; qui alios doces tu te docere non potes; soli in animalia quae creavit Deus potestatem habent homines; quam plurima sunt a Deo creata animalia; apud te, virum honestissimum, me fore gratiosum spero; quas ad te misi literas anne accepisti? quas mater misit literas pater accepit,

CORRESPONDENCE.

Omit the middle figure in these squares, and you will find that by adding them diagonally, their numbers will still be the same; namely, 6 in fig. 1, and 5 in fig. 2. For, 1+5= 4+26; and 1+4=3+2=5.

2.-Place all the 9 digits in a square form, fig. 3, each in little squares, and you will find that by adding the numbers diagonally, horizontally in the middle row, and vertically in the middle column, their sum will be the same, namely, 15 either way.