of machinery may reduce the cost of production and a coöperative laundry run in connection with the creamery gives a possibility of greatly reducing the heavy labor of the farmer's wife.

45. Schools. It is important that good schools be near the farmer's home, especially if the farmer is a young man and has a family that will be likely to require educational advantages. While school organizations are changing rapidly in rural districts, it is still quite possible to settle in a neighborhood where schools are undeveloped and backward, and where the neighbors may be unprogressive enough not to desire efficient schools which will give some training along the lines in which the farmer is interested. If one can locate in a neighborhood center near a small village or city where a good school can be attended while the children are living at home, it is an advantage that should be carefully weighed against possibly more desirable farms farther away, or where the schools are poor. The consolidated rural schools, such as are rapidly being organized in Minnesota, Iowa, Ohio, the Dakotas, and other states, will do much to encourage the farmers' children in remaining in the vocation. While consolidated rural schools are usually more expensive than the old one room district school, they are also much more efficient. The cost of maintaining them is not nearly so great as would be the cost of sending the children away from home for preparation for college. These schools connected with the high schools in which courses in agriculture are given make easy steps forward in educational lines and lead to the special agricultural schools and colleges.

46. Churches and Social Centers. Quite as important as the schools are the churches and social centers for farmers' families. So far as possible, the country church should be made the social center of the neighborhood. Frequently the church and the school can be conducted in the same building or at least in the same school or churchyard. The social activities of the whole community should center around these institutions. The school is a common meeting place of the

children, and the church is a common meeting place of the grown-up people. Where both the children and adults can meet in one or the other place on common ground for a rousing good time, sociability is encouraged and the feeling of diffidence or bashfulness wears off. The farmer who chooses a farm in a neighborhood where the church and school are made the centers of social gatherings as well as education, has an advantage the value of which cannot be estimated in money. 47. Size of Farm. From the other factors must be considered. of these is the size of the farm. demand much more land than others and the size of the farm

business standpoint many One of the most important While some types of farming

FIG. 19. A neighborhood gathering.

must always be gauged by the kind of business to be done, the fact remains, at least for most special types of farming, that a certain proportion of land area is essential to the greatest financial profit. It is impossible to build up a big business on a small piece of land. Agricultural surveys in New York,* in Minnesota, and in other states, all show that the labor income on the farm of small size is usually less than it is on the farms of medium to large size. There is an economic reason for this. On a farm of, say forty acres, devoted to general crops with some live stock products, neither the work animals nor the machinery are used to their full capacity. The labor of the farmer's family is often unemployed during * Cornell University Bulletin No. 295.

a good part of the year. The proportion of the farm products required for supporting the family is larger and as a consequence, little is left to sell. On a farm of 160 acres which can be operated with only a little more equipment and machinery, a much larger acreage is handled for the money invested in equipment. As a consequence, the cost of production is greatly reduced. Farms of 240 to 320 acres devoted to raising farm crops or farm crops and live stock combined, offer a possibility of still larger incomes through the more effective use of machinery and equipment, and a consequent decrease in the cost of production. While it is impossible to specify the size of farm that will be most profitable under all conditions, it is safe to say that the medium to large farm can be handled to the best advantage, can be most economically equipped, and will return the largest labor income to the farmer when properly managed. Special types of farming such as truck or fruit growing, are of course, adapted to small sized farms and this general statement will not hold true regarding them. The size of the farm must therefore be adapted to the type of farming and the kind of business to be done.

48. Producing Capacity. The producing capacity of a farm should be the first consideration from a business standpoint. Soil that is naturally rich and well drained is adapted to large production. Clay and clay-loam lands of the United States where drainage and climate provide satisfactory moisture conditions, are best adapted to crop production. The mixed black prairie soils of the West are rarely abandoned, and while they have been decreased in producing power by unwise cropping, they are easily built up and converted into profitable farms. It is much easier to secure large production on these soils than it is on the hilly, stony farms of New England, or on the sandy lands of the Great Pine regions. They respond to tillage better and yield larger crops than the lands on areas where semi-arid conditions prevail. In selecting a farm, therefore, one should pay especial attention to the soil. He

should consider the possibility of a large production of the crops that he wishes to grow and the possibility of securing a market for his products. The topography of the land has considerable effect upon the producing capacity. If the land is hilly and rolling, it may wash badly or be unadapted to the growth of certain crops. This will prevent the free changing of crops, resulting in poor rotations and lack of soil building methods of farming. The amount of waste land on a farm should also be considered. Besides being unproductive, waste land also interferes with the proper arrangement of fields and increases the cost of production by unnecessary turning or fences. 49. The Soil. The character of the soil is of the greatest importance. It is easy to determine whether a soil is clay, sand or sand-loam. A mixture of sand and clay in nearly equal parts provides the best foundation soil for most crops. In examining the soil one should note the proportion of sand to clay, even going to the trouble of washing out some of the soil in a saucer or other dish, so as to observe the proportion of sand. The soil that appears to have but little sand on examination when dry, will be found to contain large amounts when washed out. The surface soil should first be examined, noting the proportion of sand and clay, also whether there is vegetable matter in sufficient quantities to provide good physical condition. The subsoil also should be examined to a depth of at least two or three feet. Frequently a thin layer of good soil on the surface will be underlaid by a deep stratum of sand or gravel. Such soil is likely to be leachy, drouthy, and of low productive power. In inspecting the farm it is best to carry a spade or posthole augur, making frequent examinations of the soil in various representative spots to a depth of at least three feet. Testing the soil with litmus paper will show whether or not it contains alkali or is acid in nature. It should be nearly neutral for the best results. A slightly alkaline soil will grow better crops than one that is acid in character.

When the soil cannot be examined as mentioned above, an idea of the nature of the soil can often be approximately determined by observing the plants growing upon it. Oak, maple and other hardwood trees are usually found growing upon clay land, which when cleared is productive and satisfactory for growing the small grains and corn. Sandy lands are indicated by the vegetation growing upon them. Jack-pine land is likely to be sandy and is somewhat hard to bring into strong producing power when cleared. Land which produces an abundant crop of weeds will be found strong in crop producing power. Similar observations may be made in the way that grasses and other crops grow. Certain grasses such as timothy, the clovers, and redtop, are adapted only to the heavier or mixed soils. They are not found to be growing in profusion on sandy soils unless these sandy soils are well watered. In judging the soil by the nature of the crops that grow upon them, one must always bear in mind the kind of a season. A very moist season may show a large growth on sandy, drouthy land, where a dry season would show almost a total failure.

50. The Climate. The climate is also an important factor from a business standpoint. Fortunately, it is now possible with very little trouble to learn a great deal about the climate of any locality. The United States Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., will supply tables showing in most parts of the United States, the amount of rainfall by months and the total for the year; the date of the earliest killing frost and of the latest frost; and the extremes of heat and cold. In most places additional data can be secured on the velocity of the winds, the frequency of high winds, the appearance of droughts, or other climatic disturbances. These facts should all be looked up before settling on a farm which may become the permanent residence of the family.

51. Proximity to Markets. Farm products must be put on the market. Often the nature of the product makes it necessary to market frequently, and certain kinds of farm products