philosophers would not join themselves to one or the other of them. For when men were again at liberty to judge and think for themselves, there were individuals of superior genius and acumen, and some also whose imaginations were stronger than their judgments, that ventured to point out new ways towards the latent seats of truth. But nearly all of them failed of obtaining many followers; so that it will be sufficient just to glance at their object. There were some whose mediocrity of talents, or whose native indolence of character, deterred them from the difficult and laborious task of investigating truth by the efforts of their own minds, and who therefore attempted to collect, and to compact into a kind of system, the best and most satisfactory principles admitted by the schools. These are commonly denominated Eclectics. And finally, from these very disagreements and contests of the philosophers, some very acute men took occasion for despairing of finding the truth, and for opening again the long-closed school of the Sceptics. Among these, the more distinguished were Francis Sanchez, a physician of Toulouse, Francis de la Mothele Vayer, Peter Daniel Huet, bishop of Avranches, and some others. It is common,

and not altogether without reason, to place among this class Peter Bayle1; who acquired high reputation in the latter part of this century by various works, rich in matter, and elegant in style.

There is a celebrated work of his, entitled: De eo quid nihil scitur; which, with his other tracts, and his Life, was published at Toulouse, 1636, 4to. See Bayle's Dictionnaire, tom. iii. p. 2530, and Peter de Villemandy's Scepticismus debellatus, cap. iv. p. 32.

8 See Bayle's Dictionnaire, tom. iv. art. Vayer, p. 2780, &c.

9 His book, on the Weakness of Human Reason, was published after his death, both in French, Amsterd. 1723, 8vo, and recently in Latin. But it appears, that, long before this book was either published or written, Huet had recommended the mode of philosophizing adopted by the sceptics; and thought

this alone best suited to establish the Christian religion. See his Commentarius de rebus ad eum pertinentibus, lib. iv. p. 230, and his Demonstratio Evangelica, Preface, § iv. p. 9, where he approves the measures of those, who first enervate all philosophy, and expel it from the mind, by sceptical arguments, before they proceed to the doubting of the truth

of Christianity. We are aware that the Jesuits, to whom Huet was much inclined, formerly adopted with success, and do still adopt, this very hazardous artifice, in order to draw over Protestants to the Romish community.

Who, at this day, can be unacquainted with Bayle? His Life, copiously written, in two volumes, 8vo, by Peter des Maizeaux, was published at the Hague in 1732 [and is prefixed to the fifth edition of his Dictionnaire Hist. et Critique; Bâle, 1738, 4 tomes, fol.] His scepticism was most clearly shown, and confuted with great dexterity, by Jo. Peter de Crousaz, in a very copious French work [Examen du Pyrrhonisme]; a neat abridgment of which was made by Sam. Formey [Le Triomphe de l'Evidence], and translated from French into German, by Alb. Haller, Götting. 1756, 8vo. [See also Bayle's own answer to this and other charges brought against him, subjoined to the fifth edition of his Dictionnaire, tom. iv. p. 616, &c. Tr.]

SECTION II.

THE PARTICULAR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.

PART I.

THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT CHURCHES.

CHAPTER I.

THE HISTORY OF THE ROMISH OR LATIN CHURCH.

§ 1. The sovereign pontiffs of this century.-§ 2. Solicitude of the Romish church to oppress the Protestants.—§ 3. Commotions in Austria and Bohemia.-§ 4. The Bohemian war. Frederic V. defeated.§ 5. Progress of the Bohemian German war. -§ 6. Gustavus Adolphus arrives. Termination of the thirty years' war.-§ 7. The peace of Westphalia. -§ 8. Injuries done to Protestants by the Romanists.—§ 9. The Moors driven out of Spain. Oppression of the Reformed in France. —§ 10. Attempts upon England fail.—§ 11. Milder measures of the Papists to overcome the Protestants.-§ 12. Theological conferences attempted. —§ 13. The popish pacificators.—§ 14. Pacificators on the side of the Protestants.-§ 15. The popish Methodists.—§ 16. Protestant apostates.—§ 17. Losses of the Romish church in the east. -§ 18. Authority of the pontiff's gradually diminished.—§ 19. Controversy of Paul V. with the Venetians. - § 20. War with the Portuguese.-§ 21. Contests of the French with the pontiffs.§ 22. Lewis XIV. in particular.—§ 23. State of the Romish clergy.—§ 24. The monks. § 25. The Congregation of St. Maur.-§ 26. Port Royal. Reformed Bernardins de la Trappe.-§ 27. New sects of monks.-§ 28. The Jesuits.§ 29. State of literature in the Romish church. -§ 30. Philosophy.-§ 31. Merits of the Jesuits, the Benedictines, the Fathers of the Oratory, and the Jansenists. -§ 32. The principal writers. § 33. The Romish religion corrupted still more. -§ 34. Morality subverted by the Jesuits.-§ 35. Condition of exegetic theology. -§ 36. Dogmatic, moral, and polemic theology.-§ 37. Contests of the Jesuits and Dominicans respecting the aids of grace, under Clement VIII.—§ 38. Its continuation under Paul V. and its issue. -§ 39, 40. Commencement of the Jansenists.-§ 41. Arguments and measures of both parties.-§ 42. Five propositions condemned by Innocent X.-§ 43. Bull of Alexander VII. against Jansenius. § 44. Peace of Clement IX. Subsequent events. -§ 45. Austere piety of the Jansenists.-§ 46. The Convent of Port Royal.-§ 47. Controversy respecting the immaculate conception of St. Mary.—§ 48. Quictistic controversy. Molinos. 49. His followers. 50. Madame Guyon. Fénélon.-§ 51. La Peyrère, White, Sfondrati, and Borri.-§ 52. Canonizations.

§ 1. WHEN a new century began, the Latin church was governed by Clement VIII.', called in earlier life Aldobrandini,

whose administration of the Roman commonwealth had already extended over several years. That he was able and astute, very eager to beat down the Protestants, and enlarge the Romish world, all admit: but whether he had as much prudence as the office of sovereign pontiff needs, many have thought not so clear. He was succeeded3, in the year 1605, by Leo XI. of the Medicean family, who died, at an advanced age, in the very year of his elevation, and left the Romish chair to Paul V. of the family of Borghese, a man of violent passions, and frequently a most insolent assertor of his prerogatives; as appears, among other things, from his rash and not very successful contest with the Venetians. In Gregory XV.6 of the family of Ludovisi, who was elected in 1621, there was more moderation than in Paul V., but no more gentleness towards those who forsook the Romish church. This, however, is the common and almost necessary fault of all the Roman pontiffs, who without it, could scarcely fulfil the high duties of their office. Urban VIII., one of the Barberini, whom the favour of the cardinals placed in the Romish chair in 1623, showed himself very favourable and liberal to learned and literary men, being himself well versed in literature, and an excellent writer both in prose and verse; but towards the protestants, he was extremely

5

He

2 [He was born at Fano, in the beginning of 1536. His father, Salvestro Aldobrandini, was a doctor of laws at Florence, but of a distinguished family in that city. In politics he was a decided enemy to the Medicis, and on their complete success, in 1531, he was compelled to leave his paternal city and seek a living elsewhere. Hippolytus, the future pope, was his youngest son. proved worthy of the pontifical throne, both as a man of business, and an ecclesiastic from whom much was justly expected in the way of example. Every morning he said mass in person, every evening the illustrious Baronius received his confession, every noon, in the carlier years of his reign, twelve poor persons ate with him in one of his apartments. Ranke, Fr. Transl. iii. 290. Ed.]

and had fallen under none of those enmities which must be contracted by every such person. But an election, seemingly so little likely amid the strife of parties, surprised himself, and betrayed him into the weakness of considering it as an especial interposition of Providence. Thus regarding himself as an instrument divinely raised up for some particular purpose, being of an intractable temper, and having an intellect trained in the strict observance of legal sanctions, he filled the Papal chair with intolerable arrogance, harshness, and inflexibility. Ibid. 395. Ed.]

6 [1621-1623. Tr.]

8

1623-1644. Tr.]

See Leo Allatius, Apes Urbanæ : which little book was published by Jo. Alb. Fabricius at Hamburg. It is a full catalogue of the learned and excellent men, who adorned Rome, in the pontificate of Urban VIII. and who experienced the liberality of that pontiff. The neat and elegant Latin poems of this pontiff have been often printed. [These poems were written while he was

cruel and harsh. Yet Urban will appear kind and good, if compared with Innocent X.9 of the family of Pamphili, who succeeded him in 1644. For he was ignorant of every thing, of which the ignorance is least to be excused in heads of the church; and surrendered up himself, and all public affairs civil and sacred, to the control of Olympia, his kinswoman, a most vicious creature, avaricious, and insolent.1 His very

zealous efforts to prevent the peace of Westphalia, I do not think should be reckoned among his peculiar crimes; because, if I am not greatly mistaken, the best of pontiffs would have done the same. His successor, in 1655, Alexander VII., previously called Fabius Chigi, is deserving of a little more commendation. Still, he was not wanting in any one of the spots, which the pontiffs cannot wash out, if they would take sufficient care of their dignity. Besides, discerning and excellent men, even of the Romish church, have described him as possessing slender talents, inadequate to the management of great affairs, an insidious temper and very dishonourable fickleness. The

a cardinal. Under him, nepotism greatly prevailed; and the political transactions of his court are ascribable more to his nephews and family than to him. He procured a very distinguished edition of the Romish Breviary: suppressed the order of female Jesuits; conferred the title of Eminence on the cardinals, and on all cardinal-legates, the three clerical German electors, and the grand master of the order of Malta. Schl.]

⚫ [1644-1655. Tr.]

1 Mémoires du Cardinal de Retz, tom. iii. p. 102, &c., last edition. Add vol. iv. p. 12. Respecting his contests with the French, see Bougeant's Histoire de la Paix de Westphalie, tom. iv. p. 56. &c. [Respecting Olympia, see La Vie d'Olympe Maldachini, princesse Pamfili, trad. de l'Italien de l'Abbé Gualdi, avec des notes par M. I. Geneva (or rather, Paris), 1770, 12mo. The original was published in 1666, 12mo. Innocent, before his election, had lived in free commerce with Olympia: which was continued after his elevation, and was carried to such lengths, that the Donna, under the reign of her dear brother-in-law, possessed all power, sold all offices and prebends, gathered money in a thousand ways, opened the despatches of the envoys, and guided and controlled all state affairs. She suppressed near 2000

minor cloisters, and thereby obtained vast sums and other cloisters, threatened with the same fate, had to purchase their freedom. She was, for some time, excluded from the palace, and removed from the court, by cardinal Pancirolla, and his creature, the pretended cardinal Pamphili, whose proper name was Astalli, and who had no connexion with the pope. But she soon after returned to her old place and was the absolute mistress of the Vatican, where she at last took up her residence: indeed, the unfriendly chroniclers say, that one of her ear-rings was found in the pope's bed. And such was the pontiff, who persuaded Ferdinand III. to hold the sword always drawn over the Protestants, who condemned Jansenius, and who entered his dissent against the peace of Westphalia. Schl.]

2 [A. D. 1655-1667. Tr.]

3 See the Mémoires du Card. de Retz, tom. iv. p. 16, &c. p. 77, who very sagaciously decides many points respecting him: also Mémoires de M. Joly, tom. ii. p. 186. 210. 237, who speaks equally ill of Alexander: and the celebrated Arkenholz, Mémoires de la Reine Christine, tom. ii. p. 125, &c. ["The craft and dissimulation attributed to this pontiff, really constituted an essential part of his character; but it is not strictly true, that

— CENTURY XVII. [SECT. II. PT. I. two Clements IX. and X. who were elected, the one in 1668, and the other in 1669, performed little worth recording for posterity. The former was of the family of Rospigliosi, and the latter of that of Altieri.5 Innocent XI. previously Benedict Odeschalchi, who ascended the papal throne in 1677 6, acquired a high and permanent reputation, by the strictness of his morals, his uniformity and consistency, his abhorrence of gross superstition, his zeal to purge religion of fables, and to reform the clergy, and by other virtues. His example, however, most clearly shows, that much may be attempted, but that little can be accomplished by pontiffs who have sound views and upright intentions: likewise that the wisest regulations cannot long resist the machinations of such a multitude of persons, fostered and raised to power and influence, by licentiousness of morals, pious frauds, fables, errors, and worthless institutions." At

he was a man of a mean genius, or unequal to great and difficult undertakings. He was a man of learning, and discovered very eminent abilities at the treaty of Munster, where he was sent in the character of nuncio. Some writers relate, that, while he was in Germany, he had formed the design of abjuring popery, and embracing the protestant religion; but was deterred from the execution of his purpose by the example of his cousin count Pompey, who was poisoned at Lyons, on his way to Germany, after he had abjured the Romish faith.

These

writers add, that Chigi was confirmed in his religion by his clevation to the cardinalship. See Bayle, Nouvelles de la Répub. des Lettres, Octob. 1688." Macl.]

[1670-1676. Tr.]

5 Mémoires de la Reine Christine, tom. ii. p. 126. 131. [Clement IX. was a ruler fond of peace and splendour, a foe to nepotism, and a beneficent friend to his subjects. Clement X. was no less fond of peace than his predecessor; but introduced a peculiar kind of nepotism, by adopting as his son the cardinal Paolucci. Yet his six years' reign exhibited nothing remarkable. Schl.]

6 [1676-1689. Tr.]

See the Journal Universel, tom. i. p. 441, &c. tom. vi. p. 306. The present pontiff, Benedict XIV., attempted, in the year 1743, to enrol Innocent XI. among the saints. But Lewis XV., king of France, influenced, it is said, by the Jesuits, resisted the measure; because

Lewis XIV. had had much controversy with this pontiff; as we shall state hereafter. [It is a noticeable circumstance in his life, that in the thirty years' war, he served in Germany as a soldier; and there is still shown, at Wolfenbuttle, the house in which as an officer he is said to have resided. This circumstance, indeed, the count Turrezonico has called in question; in his work, de Supposititiis Stipendiis Militaribus Bened. Odeschalci, Como, 1742, folio. But Heumann has placed the fact beyond all doubt; in the Hannoverisch. Nüzlichen Sammlungen, 1755, p. 1185; and in the Beyträge von alten u. neuen Theologischen Sachen, 1755, p. 882. He, however, afterwards assumed the sacred office; and even on the papal throne, exhibited all the virtues of a military commander, courage, strictness, and inflexibility of purpose. He sought to diminish the voluptuousness and splendid extravagance of his court, to correct all abuses among the clergy, and to extirpate nepotism. But he often went too far, and his reforming zeal frequently extended to things indifferent. For instance, he wished to prohibit the clergy from taking snuff, and the ladies from learning music; and the like. And in this way, he would have hindered the good effects of his zeal for reformation, if he had met with no obstructions to be overcome. To canonization, and to the reading of the bull in Cana Domini, he was no friend. He actually canonized no one; and on Maundy Thursdays, on which this bull was to