which ten schools were established in the districts, five Roman Catholic being added, and in each district two local boards, one Protestant and one Catholic, for their management. Certain conditions of efficiency and equipment were laid down, and the commissioners were empowered to examine and inspect. The income available for the schools has been decreased to £3,436 in 1900, chiefly owing to the decline in rents, but also to the pensions given to some retired headmasters. This latter will cease with the pension holders. The number of pupils is at present 582, there being a slight decrease since 1899. The education given is very much improved, some of the Royal schools, such as Portora, being among the best in Ireland. The efficiency, as tested by the intermediate examinations, compares well with other Irish schools.

THE Report of the Board of Intermediate Education for 1900 shows that the income of the Board was over £100,000, and exceeded the expenditure by £11,315. The amount of result fees paid to managers in 1900 was :- boys, £41,097 10s. 10d.; girls, £15,006 7s. 4d., or a total of £56,157 18s. 2d. 5,314 students passed the examinations. There was a decrease of 2'1 per cent. in the number of students presenting themselves (7,608), a decrease due largely to the rule raising the minimum age at which preparatory-grade students can present themselves -a rule established in 1898. The decrease from this cause was much larger in 1899. The percentage of passes was 69.8, the highest yet reached. It was 68.3 per cent. in 1899, and 621 in 1898. The increase is largely due to fairer and more rational questions having been set owing to public criticism.

THE examinations for this year began on June 10th and lasted about a fortnight; they are the last examinations on the old lines. The new scheme, with the changes for 1902, was issued in the middle of June, and its provisions are noticed in another column.

CURRENT HISTORY.

MANY people in England and France thought in the years 1861-5, that the Southern States of the great North American republic would make good their endeavour to dissolve the union and that there would thus be two hostile and feeble republics, whose opinions might be neglected in international matters. Revolutions had been happening in Mexico, and the government there was in debt to many Englishmen and Frenchmen. Accordingly an Anglo-French expedition was sent to enforce the payment of these debts much in the same way as the same two powers intervened in Egypt. The Emperor Napoleon III. had further ideas, and in 1864 he induced Maximilian of Austria, a brother of the present Emperor, to accept the crown of Mexico and to found an empire there under French protection. With this England would have nothing to do, and, when the American Civil War was over, the (once more) United States, applying the doctrine which Canning of Great Britain had established and which Monroe of the United States had adopted, demanded that French intervention should cease. Accordingly in 1866, as pictured in Punch's cartoon, Napoleon was compelled to let Maximilian fall over the precipice on the edge of which he was struggling. He was captured by his republican enemies and, in reprisal for the shootings to which he had condemned his prisoners, was himself shot-June, 1867. Since then, naturally, Mexico has not been on friendly terms with Austria-Hungary. But now the story is to be buried and forgotten. The President of Mexico has erected a chapelle expiatoire in that country to the memory of Maximilian, for which the Emperor Francis Joseph has sent a picture to be placed over the altar.

"THE Supreme Court of the United States of America has decided that the War Revenue law imposing taxation on export bills of lading is unconstitutional." How our coalminers and owners, our sweetmeat manufacturers, and our payers of income tax would rejoice if a similar bit of news could be possible in this country. But, alas for them, our Parliament is almighty, nay, in matters of finance, our House of Commons is almighty, and when once the House has assented to the Budget, no law court will grant relief. Nothing that Parliament does here can be "unconstitutional," much less illegal. There, the wise fathers of the constitution foresaw the dangers of a Parliament that can, as Cromwell said, make a law one day and unmake it the next. And in 1789 they laid down the limits of its powers. So is the will of living Parliament curbed by the will of founders dead more than a century ago. And this, too, is a land where "all men are born free and equal "-even negroes now.

OUR readers may remember reading, some months ago, of the Dukhoborski and their troubles in Russia. They are folk who object to war, state churches, and other institutions of modern European civilisation. Some of them emigrated recently, with the help of friends, to Canada, under the "free" constitution of which country it was hoped they would find rest from the persecution to which they were subjected in their

pro

native land. But now we hear that "they have risen in revolt against some of the laws under which they find themselves situated." They "ask for an asylum where they will be free from the tyranny of the Canadian laws.'" They "object to the land-tenure regulations, as well as to the marriage, divorce and registration laws. . . They prefer communal instead of private ownership, and all the laws which they object to they declare to be irreconcilable with their religious views." And thus Canada is faced once again with the eternal Sphinx riddle that has tasked the wits of Western Christendom throughout its whole existence-the relation of church and state. What shall be done when the state makes a law, and a subject says it is contrary to his conscience to obey that law, as, for example, happened recently at Gloucester, where, a “Friend” (Quaker) refusing to pay income tax, on the ground that all war is wrong and that the increase in this tax was due to abnormal military expenditure, his goods were sold by distraint and were bought in by his co-religionists? The solutions have been either what we have ventured to call "per-prosecution" (the prefix being chosen according to our sympathies), or toleration, or "establishment." In the first, the State wins; in the second, there is a drawn battle; in the third, the Church wins. To illustrate the matter would be to tell the history of Europe.

COUNT TOLSTOI has been excommunicated by the authorities of the Greek Church. And there has been much indignation thereanent, at which we personally take leave somewhat to wonder. If a member of the Carlton Club were to become a Radical and Home Ruler, should we be surprised if he were to be expelled? And though Tolstoi has perhaps wandered not so far from the dogmas of the "Orthodox" Church as to complete the analogy, we are somewhat puzzled to know why he' should even wish to remain a member of the community with which he has so little in common. When William III. of England wanted to "comprehend" all Englishmen in the one Church of his day, it was found impossible to widen the terms of admission far enough to include all without making the institution valueless for those who were content with things as they were before. The indignation of Tolstoi's friends is comprehensible only if we suppose that in Russia, because of the close union between Church and State, excommunication spells also "outlawry," as it did in England before 1689.

EDUCATION AND THE EMPIRE.1

By CLOUDESLEY BRERETON, M.A.

IN 1897, after the celebration of the Queen's Jubilee, it was decided that steps should be taken to prepare a series of Reports on Colonial Education. Some twenty-two colonies were approached. They included all the North American and Australian colonies, together with the Cape, Natal, British Guiana, Jamaica, Ceylon, and Malta. A later volume will include accounts of the tropical and sub-tropical colonies of Mauritius, the Straits Settlements, Hong Kong, and our West African possessions. The only important omission is India, whose educational system may be studied in existing publications of the Indian Government. To ensure a certain similarity in the form and scope of the various reports, a certain number of heads of inquiries were sent out to the different colonies. Information was asked as regards the history of education in the colony, the constitution of central and local authorities, the numbers of pupils and students, and the regulations as regards school attendance and the method of putting them into force. Finance was also fully dealt with. Questions were addressed on the different quota contributed, as might be, by the state, the locality, and the parents. Nor were the private schools ignored by the inquiry. The vexed question of inspection and the recruitment of the inspectorate formed another subject for investigation. Other equally important chapters of inquiry were those which dealt with manual and physical training, with the religious question, the appointment, salaries and status of teachers, the problem of free meals, continuation and evening classes, the provision for higher and university education, and the extent to which it was subsidised by the state; technical, commercial, and agricultural instruction, reformatories and industrial schools, and instruction for those who start unfortunately penalised in life's handicap, the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the mentally defective.

The mere enumeration of these different headings is instructive as showing and helping us to realise that the problems of our kindred across the sea are exactly the same as those which are, many of them, causing much commotion in England to-day. In fact, we may do worse, when seeking for light on our own difficulties, than turn to the present Reports and see how this colony and that have handled the problems as they have arisen. These things are written for our learning quite as much as for the colonies themselves. One of the most prominent features of the reports, according to Mr. Sadler, is a great and growing interest in education throughout the Empire. Variety in system and organisation is another striking point. We have never sought, like the French, to impose a certain home-bred form of education on our colonies; on the contrary, they have been allowed to develop and build up whatever system seemed best suited to their own particular circumstances. Now, however, there is a growing sentiment among the colonies that this rich and varied experience should be utilised as far as possible.

These two volumes are, we hope, only a beginning towards the establishment of an Imperial Bureau of Education, whose facts and statistics may be alike at the service of the colonies and the mother country. Another characteristic is the increasing distrust of mere bookish knowledge as apt to create déclassés, and a quickening consciousness of the importance of technical and manual training. Other points of note are the comparative failure of existing methods of native education. The untutored savage seems to be little improved by the acquirement of reading, writing and cyphering. In fact, his last state is probably

1 Board of Education: Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vols. iv. & v. "Educational Systems of the Chief Colonies of the British Empire." [ed. 416] 45. 8d., [ed. 417] 45. 1901.

worse than the first. And lastly, it is curious to note that the supply of higher, and especially of secondary, education is deficient in many of our colonies. There seems to be a great lack of schools providing education on the lines of our great public schools. The want of endowments for secondary education has not so far been adequately compensated for in the colonies by the State. Too much has been left to private venture.

Coming to the colonies themselves, the account of education in Ontario is highly interesting as the account of a thoroughly efficient and well worked-out system. That of Quebec brings us at once into the midst of the religious question, complicated further by racial differences. The modus vivendi, however, on which the schools are conducted is equally honourable to both parties. Protestants and Catholics alike must contribute to the school rate, but they have the right to "ear-mark" their contributions in order to show to the support of which type of school they desire to contribute. In Manitoba the religious question has probably appeared in its most acute form. The strife waxed very hot for a tine; even the Pope had to intervene, but, according to the Tablet of October, 1898, the rights of small Catholic minorities to have a school of their own, when sufficiently numerous, seemed at that date in a fair way of being granted.

The historical sketch of education at the Cape is very interesting. The first school, not for Europeans at all, but for slave children, was started by a rich visitor (sieckentroosies) in 1656. It is worthy of remark that when the French Huguenots arrived in the colony, their children, the forefathers of the present Delareys and Du Toits, were instructed in French, till directions were received from Holland towards "killing" the language. The taking of the colony by the English introduced anew the language problem, which has been further complicated by the arrival of German colonists, while the education of the natives raises the additional question of teaching being carried on in Kaffir and Sesuto. The solution of the language which should form the medium for the bulk of the child's instruction depends largely on the prevailing language of the district. But in any case English is always taught as a main or a bye subject.

The weak spot in the Australian colonies seems to lie in their university and secondary education. It is only fair to Victoria to point out that, owing to the commercial crisis from which the country has only just recovered, the most rigid economy had to be practised in all departments of State, not excluding that of Education, which is generally one in which little retrenchment which is not harmful can be practised. The total expenditure on education sank from nearly £900,000 in 1890-91, to about £600,000 in 1896-7! Grants were cut down wholesale. Melbourne University, which received £12,800 in 1890-91, only received £3,250 in 1896-7.

Much of the most valuable parts of the Reports is contained in the small print and appendices. Especially informative are the extracts from the so-called progress reports of the Royal Commission on Technical Education in Victoria. That on the efficiency of the educational system might well be studied by our English authorities. A point that was agitating the same colony at the moment of the drawing up of the Reports was the question of Scripture lessons in State schools. Highly significant extracts of evidence given on the subject are embodied in the Report. We notice that Tasmania, which someone has nick-named an Australian Sleepy Hollow, has not yet freed its primary education, though the fees of necessitous children are paid for by the State. South Australia attempts to give its primary teachers a University training-a truly admirable idea. New Zealand teachers also enjoy a teacher's court of appealanother point we should do well to copy. Ceylon is doing a great work in attempting to carry out the education of natives

to a certain extent on native lines. Jamaica has gone in strongly for agricultural education as recommended by the Royal Commission, which promises to do much for the future prosperity of the island. In Malta the great burning question is that of the Italian language. The Italian Irredenta party are fighting hard for its retention, but, according to the plebiscite taken among the parents and guardians of the pupils, some 98 per cent. are in favour of English being taught in preference to Italian. The language of Malta, corruptions apart, is, of course, really a Semitic dialect.

Such are only a small tithe of the interesting points with which the Reports teem. We only regret that the Board of Education should have issued the two volumes simultaneously. Few persons have time to read through 1,600 pages. Again, it would be a great improvement if such books could be produced in a bound form.

Their very bulkiness causes them to tumble

to pieces if they are subjected to any constant use. The plainest of cloth boards would be preferable to the present flimsy paper covers.

THE RELATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.1

MR. GEORGE, in his opening words, sketches the outline of which the rest of his book fills in the details. After insisting on the extreme modernness of exact geographical knowledge, he proceeds to discuss and illustrate "the general nature of geographical influences" under four main headings:

(1) Physical features are permanent, while frontiers vary. (2) They very largely govern the beginnings of history. (3) They affect the destiny of nations after they have been formed.

(4) It is only late in history that human labour can avail to modify their influence, and at most this can only be done to a small extent.

The next six chapters (iii.-viii.) deal with Frontiers, Towns, Nomenclature-in connection with which he mentions his indebtedness to Canon Isaac Taylor, but does not allude to Mr. Joyce's books on Irish place-names nor to Mr. Round's more recent paper on the subject-"Fallacies of the Map, Sea Power in Peace and War, and Geography in War." A comparatively long chapter traces the outlines of Europe clearly and pleasantly and with two well-drawn maps by Mr. B. V. Darbishire, who seems to have received a semi-official appointment as cartographer to History dons at Oxford. The rest of the book -with the exception of a somewhat slight chapter on America at the end-is occupied with a fairly detailed consideration of the historical geography of Europe according to the following "natural" divisions: British Islands, France, the Spanish Peninsula, Italy, the Alpine Passes, Switzerland, the Rhineland, the Baltic Region, the Danube Basin, Theatres of European War, the Mediterranean Basin.

This summary of the contents shows that the book is orderly and well arranged, that it contains much matter not readily accessible elsewhere which will be eminently useful to the general teacher, and that Mr. George's conception of Historical Geography is somewhat wider in its scope than that adopted in Freeman's two volumes, now (alas!) out of print. And those who are acquainted with Mr. George's previous work will know that anything coming from his pen is pretty sure to be helpful and suggestive. He has always stood "far from the madding crowd" of text-book makers, and has preferred to give us books

1 The Relations of Geography and History." By the Rev. H. B. George, M.A. Pp. viii.+296. 45. 6d. (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press.) No. 31, VOL. 3.]

that we really need. His "Genealogical Tables," his "Poems of England," and his "Battles of English History" are each in their several ways not so much the best as the only books available. Anyone can turn out a text-book to order, but it requires a certain amount of insight to see what is needed to supplement text-books, and a considerable amount of faith in human responsiveness to set about meeting a "need" which is only too likely not to be a "felt want."

But though we are beholden to Mr. George for his happy thought, for several hours' reading which pleasantly blend interest with instruction, and for a valuable addition to our fiveguinea "Library of English History," we have one or two little growls to make. Mr. George has put forth many fruitful ideas, but he has seldom told us where we may most profitably turn if we want to see them worked out more completely than his space permits; we cannot think that this omission of bibliographical apparatus is anything but a blemish, or that the blemish is rendered more acceptable by its frequency in English books. Secondly, we think it is a pity that Mr. George has permitted himself certain popular and misleading loosenesses of terminology, especially in the much-abused words, " race," "people," "nation," and "nationality." When he is continuously thinking about the subject he is careful to use the term race in a scientific sense, but at other times he lapses into the time-honoured confusion between race-names and languagenames. It is difficult, for example, to see what good end is served by speaking of Teutonic and Keltic "races," and we are at a loss to understand what precise meaning can be attached to the phrase "the English race."

CLASSICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL.1

But

THERE is much of value and interest in this book, although the proportion is somewhat out and the execution uneven. there can be no doubt that its publication is timely, when we are in danger from the so-called "modern" education, which bears the same relation to the true science as the higher-grade board schools do to the work of Thring, disregarding tradition entirely, having a single eye to produce wage-earning creatures and eagerly receptive of the newest theories. Prof. Bennett wisely devotes a section to justifying the teaching of Latin, in which he shows conclusively that it is unique as an instrument of mental training, and cannot be replaced by modern languages, by English, by natural science or technical instruction. It is encouraging to find that in America its value has been recognised by a kind of instinct, so that the number of learners has increased enormously of late years. Prof. Bennett is also severe on the pretentions of the "inductive method," which, he points out, has the effect of making a pupil generalise from single instances. The parrot method of learning French and German is also demolished as an educative agent; both he and, in a less degree, Prof. Bristol are sceptical as to the value of modern "improvements in method, and Prof. Bennett points out that since grammar has ceased to be thoroughly learnt the memory has been neglected, and the expected result, ability to read with understanding, has not been attained. Exact knowledge and habits of accurate thought are the objects which both writers aim at, and they rightly say that a child may learn these without any great readi ness either in reading or writing Latin and Greek. We should like to have criticised some points; for instance, the choice and sequence of authors, the pronunciation of Latin, the depreciation

1 "The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Secondary School." By C. E. Bennett and G. P. Bristol. 336 pp. (Longmans.) 5s. net.

Y

of parsing, and certain inconsistencies between the two parts of the book, but we must content ourselves with saying that there is a good deal of detail which has no place here. We do not look in a book of this sort to find what chapters of Xenophon's "Anabasis," Book I., may be omitted in class work, or the pronunciation of naturalised Greek names in English, or what words to discuss in a given passage of Homer. We look for principles. However, when all is said, it is a suggestive and, generally speaking, a judicious book.

RECENT SCHOOL BOOKS.

Modern Languages.

Voltaire, Contes et Mélanges.

Edited by F. B. Kirkman. xxix. +159 pp. (A. & C. Black.) 25.-The editor is mistaken in thinking that the shorter prose writings of Voltaire have not been edited for English readers; Mr. Roget prepared a very good selection which was published in 1894. The book before us is "primarily intended for middle forms and for rapid reading in upper forms." The choice is not a happy one. The whole spirit of Voltaire is alien to the spirit which we desire to foster in the boys and girls of middle forms; and Jeannot et Colin (also to be found in Mr. Roget's book) is the only story of the selection we should care to read with a class. The method to be employed is suggested in an indifferently written preface; there is no life of Voltaire; the notes on the subject matter are too condensed. The exercices oraux might be better arranged; and the introduction of English words is to be regretted. There are several fullpage illustrations, the conception of which is better than the execution.

George Lamy, Voyage du novice Jean-Paul. Edited by D. Devaux. xviii. +148 pp. (Macmillan.) 25.-A good addition to Siepmann's Series. The story tells of a visit to the cod fisheries of Newfoundland, and to Canada (Quebec, Montreal and the North-West). It thus serves the double purpose of teaching our pupils French (the style is simple and good), and of giving them some information about the Dominion. The editorial work has been conscientiously done, and we do not hesitate to recommend the book for use in junior classes, or for private reading in the case of older pupils. The text amounts to only 49 pages of large type, so that it can conveniently be read in a term.

P. de Musset, Monsieur le Vent et Madame la Pluie. Edited by E. Leakey. 80 pp. (Arnold.) 9d.--This fairy tale is written in simple French, and will be found suitable for a junior class. The narrative is bright and fluent, and the notes give information on all difficulties and many things besides. The grammar rules are neatly expressed. There is also a list of the irregular verbs with their principal parts; and a vocabulary, which is not quite complete. The proof has been read with care; we have noticed no misprints.

Conversation-book in French, German and English, for the Use of Schools and Travellers. By James Conner. Twelfth Edition. viii.+280 pp. (London: Dulau.)— The contents are divided into five groups of sentences referring respectively to (1) grammatical elements, (2) dialogues, (3) models of letters, bills and receipts, (4) common things, (5) proverbs. In addition, there are tables showing the principal monies in use in Europe and the United States, and their equivalents in English money. The sentences are arranged

in parallel columns of French, German and English, but it is easy to understand that idiomatic expressions in one of the three languages sometimes admit of only an awkward rendering in the others. On the whole, the sentences are good ones, and the book could be profitably used in connection with the Gaspey. Otto-Sauer series of school books of French and German. Their brevity is a merit.

Classics.

Little Arthur's History of Greece. By the Rev. Arthur S. Walpole. xvi. +284 pp. (Murray.) 2s. 6d. "This little book is an attempt to tell the History of Greece in a clear, simple, and interesting manner." So Mr. Walpole begins his preface, and it may be stated at once that he fully succeeds in his aim. There is no other book of which we know that presents the outline of Greek history as this does. It is fresh, plain, comprehensible and vivid, and withal the best modern historians have been studied to such purpose that nothing will hereafter have to be removed from the head of the child who has learnt this. For the publication of the book means that Greek history, with all its interest and its teaching for us to-day, can be made a valuable subject of instruction at a much earlier age than has been hitherto possible. The writer has wisely exercised his discretion in the choice of materials, and his selection is such as

DELPHI.

to produce a continuous narrative which includes all important events, and introduces all the most noted names from the period of the Pelasgians to that of the Roman conquest. Early the book he brings prominently into view the secret of that weakness of Greece as a nation, which showed itself in the succession.

of headship and ever-continued rivalry between the various states, as follows: "The most important result of these mountain barriers was that Greece never in her best days became a single state, but was broken up into a number of smaller states. In a district no larger than a small English county there might very well be several free and independent cities, each managing its own affairs, making its own laws and carrying on miniature wars with its neighbours. It is much as if two county towns, say Canterbury and Dover, should quarrel, lead their armies into the field, and fight it out to the death." The explanations given of terms such as "oracle," "ostracism," and the like are simple and entirely satisfactory. The illustrations-one of which, a full-page picture of Delphi, we are permitted to reproduce are so good that it is a pity there are not more of them. Finally, we may mention that a trial has been made of putting various passages before a very small boy to his abounding interest. What is more, he has remembered them.

modern forms vary from those in use during the Roman occupation more than eighteen centuries ago. Liberality of illustration does not mean that other points are made subservient to this. We have, on the contrary, extremely good notes, very useful appendices on the text, on inscriptions illustrating the Roman period in Britain, and on grammatical and stylistic points.

Edited Books.

In Memoriam. Edited, with a Commentary, by A. W. Robinson, B. D. 272 pp. (Pitt Press.)-This is an addition to the literature growing up round the name and work of Tennyson, already not by any means insignificant. Mr. Robinson writes in a most sympathetic strain, and shows a complete familiarity with all the aspects of his subject. On some sides of it, indeed, he contents himself with hints and suggestions, but only with the conscious and obvious reserve of one who does

Messrs. Bell send the Second Part of their Latin Course by E. C. Marchant, M.A., and J. G. Spencer, B. A. xxiv. + 135 PP. Is. 6d. It maintains the excellent features of Part I. recently noticed in these columns, and is to be followed by a third Part. In the "Illustrated Classics" of the same publishers we have this month :-Ovid: Elegiac Selections. By F. C. Smith, B.A. 86 + xliv. pp. Is. 6d. Euripides: Bacchae. By G. M. Gwyther, M. A. 164 + xlii. pp. 25. Both are admirably adapted for use in their respective places. We have also, in "Bell's Illustrated Classics, Intermediate Series," another of the very pleasant school books which the name now suggests to us, viz.: Tacitus: Agricola. By J. W. E. Pearce, M.A. xxiii. + 127 pp. 25. We are permitted to reproduce an illustration of "Part of the Roman Wall (Cudy's Craig, Northumberland)." Several of the other illustrations are taken from Silchester, not the least interesting of which is that of some Roman tools, which shows how little our

not feel at liberty to say all that he feels or tell all that he knows, yet, nevertheless, who knows and feels with that intensity which alone can make criticism helpful. The introduction is singularly good, and the Commentary will be found very serviceable by those who have not time to read the more comprehensive works which deal with the subject. There is an abundance of biographical and historical detail; plenty of philosophic explanation; much discreet handling of the religious questions involved in the poem, and also a very complete view of the personalities of Tennyson and Hallam to be gained from this volume. It is of too good an order to be styled a manual, and it is not bulky or original enough to assume any position of authority; but such as it is, it is a welcome, serviceable and able elucidation of an almost unique poem.

Beowulf. By J.R. Clark Hall. 203 pp. (Swan Sonnenschein.) 5s. The wide spread and increasing interest manifested in this