further into this very interesting inquiry, but refrain, from a desire not to present too many difficulties at present. Fig. 80 is an example of the rule set forth by Fig. 79. It will be observed that the dotted lines representing the sun's inclination, determine the extent of the cast shadow of the buildings on the ground; and according to the heights of the buildings, so is the extent of their shadows: the shadow of the chimney is on the roof, which being above the eye cannot be seen. Let us again remind the pupil that the tone of the cast shadow on the ground is darker than the broad shadow on the walls. Observe when the shadow of a perpendicular object is cast horizontally on the ground, and is found to be equal in length to the height of that object, then the inclination of the sun's rays is at an angle of 45°. Therefore, to determine the extent of a shadow caused by the sun's inclination at 45°, we have simply to make the object and its shadow of the same length; should the sun's rays be at any other angle, the method, as shown in the problem Fig. 79, of first constructing the angle, must be adopted. The dotted horizontal retiring lines from the shadows in Fig. 77 and Fig. 78, meet on the H L, or line of sight, at the vanishing point of the sun's direction; whilst the inclined dotted lines from the top of the post to the extremity of the shadow, are drawn from the vanishing point of the sun's elevation, in one case above, in the other below, the line of sight. We merely mention this, and purposely decline giving any further rules at present for the construction of shadows, asking the pupil patiently to wait until he is a little more advanced, for fuller and more direct information, with a promise on our part that he shall not be left without proof and further instruction upon these interesting points. In the case of Fig. 81, the sun is behind us to the left, and therefore in front of the picture; cast shadows are thrown upon the projecting walls and on the ground: this hint will remind the pupil of their difference of tone. In working a shadow cast on the ground, we recommend the practice of drawing the lines of the shadow (that is, the shading) horizontally, so that the retiring shadows will then appear horizontal on a like surface: if the lines of the work were drawn in the direction of the vanishing point to which the shadow retires, the shadow would then appear to be inclined to the horizon, similar to the roof of a house, or to a board placed upon an edge and leaning against a wall. Cast shadows on perpendicular planes, such as upright walls, should be worked perpendicularly. As a general rule, we may decide that the working of a shadow should always be with especial reference to the position or inclination of the object upon which it is cast, whether it be perpendicular, horizontal, or inclined, so that the lines of the shading, though representing the shadow, should also represent the character of the ground, object, or plane upon which the shadow is cast.

LESSONS IN LATIN.-XI.

SUBSTANTIVES of the fourth declension have in the nominative two case-endings, one in us, the other in u. The nouns which end in us are for the most part masculine; those which end in u are neuter. The u belongs to the stem. With this u are blended the case-endings of the genitive and ablative singular, and the nominative and accusative plural; thus u and is become us in the genitive singular; u and e become in the ablative singular; u and es become is in the nominative and accusative plural. The fourth conjugation, then, is only a contracted form of the third; contracted, I say, that is shortened, as when u and s are melted together to form us, the case-ending of the genitive singular.

lake or inland sea; quercus, f., an oak; specus, m., a cave or grotto; tribus, f., a tribe; pecu, n., cattle; veru, n., a spit.

As u belongs to the stem, ubus is the regular form in the dative and ablative plural; but the u has been set aside by the connecting vowel i, as in fruct-i-bus. EXAMPLE.-Fructus, m., fruit; cornu, n., a horn. Cases. Singular.

Plural.

Singular.

Plural. cornuă, horns.

N. fructus, fruit. fructus, fruits. cornů, a horn. G. fructus, of fruit. fructuum, of fruits cornus, of a horn. cornuäm, of horn D. fructai, to fruit, fructibus, to fruits. cornu, to a horn. cornibus, to horns Ac.fructum, fruit. fructus, fruits. cornu, a horn. cornǎă, horns. V. fructus, O fruit ! fructûs, ( fruits! cornû, O horn! cornuă, O horns! Ab.fructu, by fruit. fructibus, by fruits cornũ, by a horn. cornibús, by horns declension: thus, from the second, it has the ablative singular Domus, f., a house, partakes of the second as well as the fourth in o, as domo, and one form of the genitive plural in orum, as domorum; from the fourth declension, it has most of its other It is declined thus:

cases.

EXERCISE 35.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

libenter indulgent lusui. 1. Lusus gratus est pueris. 2. Varia sunt genera lusûs. 3. Pueri 4. Nonne pueris gratus est lusus? 5. Lusus est mihi gratus. 6. Tibi est lusus vehementer gratus. 7. Viri graves evitant lusus pueriles. 8. O lusus, quam suaviter animos puerorum delectas! 9. Reges non delectantur lusu puerili. 10. Sensus sunt 11. Acres mihi sunt sensus. 12. Vis sensuum est magna, 13. Estne sensuum vis magna. 14. Vir fortis non succumbit sensibus doloris. 15. Acres sensus habent bestia. 16. O sensus, quantas voluptates hominibus paratis ! 17. Animalia prædita sunt sensibus.

acres.

EXERCISE 36.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. The feeling of pain is bitter. 2. Is not the feeling of pain bitter to thee? 3. The feeling of pain is bitter to all men and to all animals. 4. The power of grief is great. 5. The sage is not overcome by the power of the senses. 6. A brave (fortis) man yields not to grief. 7. Do brave men yield to the power of the senses? 8. O grief, how dost thou overcome the minds of men ! 9. Boys willingly yield to play. 10. (There) are many kinds of play. 11. Plays (games) of all kinds are pleasant to boys and girls. 12. Boyish plays delight not men. 13. Men are not delighted by boyish plays. 14. Boys and men yield to pleasure. 15. How greatly is grief avoided by children. 16. Boys delight in bows and arrows. 17. Girls delight in needles.

There are no adjectives which follow the fourth declension, as there are none which follow the fifth declension. Adjectives follow exclusively the first, the second, and the third declen. sions. Yet nouns of the fourth and of the fifth declensions are sometimes united with adjectives. In declining nouns and adjectives so united, you must take care to preserve the proper forms of both, and not allow the one to influence the other. To aid you in making the necessary distinctions, I supply instances for practice.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF VARIOUS DECLENSIONS.

EXAMPLE.-Maturus fructus, m., ripe fruit; frequens cœtus,

frequentibus cœtibus. frequentes cœtus. frequentes cœtus. frequentibus cœtibus.

models; thus:Cases.

N. summus mons.

Cases.

Singular.

V.

G. summi montis. D. summo monti. Ac. summum montem. summe mons.

debile genu. debilis genu.

debile genu.

debile genu.

debili genu.

debili genu.

debilibus genibus. debilia genua.

debilia genua. debilibus genibus.

EXERCISE 37.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Tonitrus terribilis animos hominum permovet. 2. Nonne tonitrus sonus est terribilis ? 3. Tonitrus fremitus horribilis est. 4. Horribilis est tonitrus. 5. Fulmen antecedit tonitrum. 6. Multi homines extimescunt tonitru. 7. Tonitrus extimescitur a multis hominibus. 8. O tonitrus, quam horribilis est fremitus tuus! 9. Domus resonat tonitru. 10. Genua virorum sunt valida. 11. Vigor genuum indicat robur corporis. 12. Magna vis est genibus. 13. Supplices procumbunt in (on) genua. 14. O genua, quam valde vacillatis! 15. In genibus est magna vis.

EXERCISE 38.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. The man's knee is strong. 2. Strong knees have vigour. 3. Aro thy knees strong? 4. The woods resound with the horrible sound of thunder. 5. The sound of thunder greatly moves the animals. 6. Thunder is feared by strong beasts. 7. I have weak knees. 8. Has your father weak knees? 9. No, my father has strong knees. 10. I am greatly moved by much lightning. 11. The roaring of thunder greatly moves the suppliants. 12. The suppliant points out the beautiful house.

Summus, highest; medius, middle; imus, lowest; reliquus, remaining; ultimus, extremus, last, etc. These adjectives agree in number, case, and gender with their nouns, though in English they appear to have the force of nouns, and consequently to require the construction of nouns. Thus, the Latins say, summus mons, that is, the highest mountain; meaning, the top of the mountain, the highest part of the mountain, the mountain, that is, where it is highest. I subjoin some instances, with forms for practice.

Instances:-Ima quercus, the bottom of the oak; reliquum opus, the remainder of the work; primum limen, the edge of the threshold; extremum bellum, the end of the war; ineuns ver, the beginning of spring; media æstas, the middle of summer summa aqua, the surface of the water; intima philosophia, the

Singular. media mestas. mediæ æstatis. mediæ æstati.

mediam æstatem. media mestas. media æstate.

Plural mediæ æstates. mediarum æstatum. mediis æstatibus. medias æstates.

medim æstates.

mediis æstatibus.

With these English words other English words are connected, so that when you know the import of these, you easily learn the import of the connected or related terms. Thus from the adjective acute comes the adverb acutely and the noun acuteness; with the verb alienate is connected the noun alien; voluptuary has corresponding forms in voluptuous and voluptuousness; | grateful also has gratitude and gratefully.

Find the Latin terms which occur in the instructions in the third declension, from which are derived these English words, namely:

Acrid.

Audacious. Aviary. Cardinal.

Civic.

Corpulent. Decorous. Floral. Gregarious.

Commit to memory these lixes, which comprise the feminine nouns of the fourth declension:

Feminine: these nouns in us: tribus, acus, porticus.
Domus, nurus, socrus, anus: idus, quercus, ficus, manus.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-X.
EXERCISE 33.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. A soldier ought to fight with a brave mind. 2. Men have mortal bodies, immortal minds. 3. Have not men mortal bodies? 4. I am delighted with the sweet voice of birds. 5. Art thou delighted with tho sweet voice of birds? 6. Boys should apply to learning with an eager mind. 7. Why, O boys, do you not apply to knowledge with an earnest mind? 8. The praise of scholars consists in good characters and severe industry. 9. With earnest industry my father applies to literature. 10. Piety is the basis of all the virtues. 11. Thy virtues, O mother, delight me. 12. Brave men are not overcome by severe pains. 13. We do not yield to daring enemies. 14. Every voice (sound) is well heard by thy mother. 15. Thy voices (words), O sister, are sweet to me.

EXERCISE 34.-ENGLISH-LATIN,

1. Fortes viri hostibus non cedunt. 2. Audax agmen non facile vincitur. 3. Alacri animo in literas incumbit meus filius. 4. Sorores tum amantne literas ? 5. Avium vocibus delectantur. 6. Aves

hostium suaves habent voces. 7. Bene in literas incumbunt discipuli mei. 8. A Julio Cesare vincitur audax agmen. 9. Hominum corpora mortalia sunt, immortales animi. 10. Matris pietas filium delectat. 11. Filia patris virtute delectatur. 12. Industria et bonis moribus puerorum constat virtus. 13, Matris mem epistola ab omnibus auditur.

GREAT BOOKS.

II. THE "DIVINA COMMEDIA.”

THE "Divina Commedia," or Divine Comedy, is the principal work of Dante Alighieri, a Florentine of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, whose astonishing genius as a poet has made him one of the most conspicuous lights of Christian literature. Dante was a politician as well as a poet, and mingled largely in affairs of State. This fact it is necessary to bear in mind when reading, or considering, even so imaginative a work as the "Divina Commedia ;" for Dante seldom forgot his politics, even when wandering in the remotest realms of dream and phantasy. In his day the Italians were divided into two great parties those of the Guelphs and Ghibellines: the former, adherents of the Pope; the latter, champions of the Emperor, and of his influence in Italy. Originally a Guelph, Dante afterwards saw reason for changing sides; but, although a sincere Ghibelline in his maturer years, he was a very independent supporter of the Imperial cause, and found almost as much to blame in the one party as in the other. While occupying an important post in the Government of Florence, he identified himself with one of the factions into which the Republic was divided. A strong feeling was aroused against him; he was banished from the city, and, although submission to the dominant power might have procured his return, his animosity increased with time, and he died in exile in 1321, at the comparatively early age of fifty-six. He had not seen his native city for nineteen years.

Wandering about from one part of Italy to another-sometimes assisted by noblemen of culture, who admired his genius and approved his principles, at other times reduced almost to the verge of want occasionally visiting Paris, and once, it is believed, going as far as Oxford-Dante employed the ripest period of his life in the composition of that immortal poem which has consecrated his name, not only in the minds of his countrymen, but in the estimation of all civilised nations. It is doubtful whether the work was made generally known in its entireness during the author's lifetime; but parts of it were handed about, and excited the strongest interest in Dante as a genius of wonderful originality and power. The title has led to some discussion, for the word "comedy" does not seem at all applicable to a poem which, throughout so large a part, is in the last degree tragical and gloomy, and which even in its heavenly scenes is too solemn and devout for any suggestion of mirthfulness. The poet himself explained that he called it a comedy because, contrary to the style of tragedy, it begins with sorrow, and ends with joy.

19

The titles of the three divisions of the "Divina Commedia" are the "Inferno (Hell), the "Purgatorio" (Purgatory), and the "Paradiso" (Paradise). At the commencement of the poem, Dante imagines himself lost in a gloomy wood, the terrific aspect of which affects him with an indescribable dread. Here he meets with the shade of Virgil, who, though a heathen, was always regarded in the middle ages as a person of great virtue, possessing a certain magical power over the world of spirits. Virgil tells Dante that he will conduct him through the regions of punishment and of repentance, and that he has been sent upon this errand by the glorified spirit of Beatrice Portinari, a lady with whom the Florentine poet had fallen in love when both were about nine, for whom he always cherished a romantic affection, and who had been dead several years when the Divine Comedy was written. Having passed into the infernal domain through a gateway inscribed with the celebrated line,

"All hope abandon, ye who enter here,"

Dante and Virgil proceed successively through nine circles of endless suffering, which, with their subdivisions and inner gulfs, are described with extraordinary power, minuteness, and semblance of reality. These circles are as so many abysses opening out of one another, depth within depth, the torments of the damned increasing with every remove, in proportion to the greater enormity of their sins. In many places Dante recognises the miserable creatures, or obtains from them their names; and this gives occasion for the introduction of several episodes, such as those of Paolo and Francesca, and Ugolino of Pisa.

After seeing the whole of the Tartarean realm, Virgil and Dante re-ascend to the surface of the earth, and find themselves

in the southern hemisphere, on the shore of a solitary ocean encircling the island of Purgatory. A boat containing the souls of newly-deceased persons, and guided by an angel, arrives on the strand, and Dante, still conducted by Virgil, enters the shadowy domain where the spirits of those who on earth had not sinned in the highest degree are purified by ages of penance, with a view to ultimate redemption. The Purgatory of Dante is divided into seven cornices, circling the sides of a mountain. The final ascent leads to the terrestrial paradise, where the poet encounters the spirit of Beatrice, who conducts him into the regions of the blessed. His guide is no longer Virgil, for Virgil was a Pagan, and therefore could not enter the Christian heaven. The successive spheres of this celestial world are reflected in the poet's verse with a visionary splendour, and at the same time with a fulness of detail, which together give one the impression of an actual experience. It is related of Dante that he was sometimes entirely abstracted in the midst of company, and on these occasions he may, in a spiritual sense, and by the strength of a most powerful and exalted imagina tion, have beheld what he afterwards described. The "Divina Commedia" ends with a vision of the Divine Majesty.

La voiture qu'il s'est donnée est The carriage he has given to himself belle. is beautiful.

It will be easily perceived that vous in the first sentence is s direct object, and that se in the second and in the third repre sents an indirect object, the direct object of the third being que, which, standing for voiture, and preceding the auxiliary, governs the past participle donnée in the feminine singular. 3. Verbs naturally impersonal, i.e., verbs which are not used otherwise, take avoir as an auxiliary: Il a plu, il a neigé, il a gelé,

It rained, it snowed, it froze.

1. À qui vos sœurs se sont-elles adressées ? 2. Elles se sont adressées à moi. 3. Ne se sont-elles pas trompées ? [Sect. 38. 1.] 4. Elles se sont trompées. 5. Vous êtes-vous aperçu de votre erreur ? 6. Je ne m'en suis pas aperçu. 7. Vous êtesvous ennuyés à la campagne? 8. Nous nous y sommes ennuyés [Sect. 38. 4]. 9. Ces demoiselles se sont-elles ennuyées chez vous?

10. Elles s'y sont ennuyées. 11. De quoi vous êtesvous servie pour écrire, Mademoiselle ? [Sect. 39. 2.] 12. Je me suis servie d'une plume d'or. 13. Ces écolières ne se sontelles pas servies de plumes d'acier ? 14. Elles se sont servies de plumes d'argent. 15. La Hollandaise s'est-elle assise? 16. Elle ne s'est point assise. 17. Lui est-il arrivé un malheur ? 18. Il ne lui est rien arrivé, elle ne se porte pas bien. 19. Ne s'est-elle pas donné [§ 131 (1)] de la peine pour rien? 20. Cette soie ne s'est-elle pas bien vendue ? 21. Elle s'est très bien vendue. 22. N'a-t-il pas fait beau temps toute la journée? 23. Non, Monsieur, il a plu, il a neigé et il a grêlé. 24. N'est-il rien arrivé aux deux dames que nous avons vues ce matin? 25. Non, Madame, il ne leur est rien arrivé.

EXERCISE 86.

1. Has it rained to-day? 2. It has not rained, but it has hailed and snowed. 3. Has anything happened to your little boy? 4. Nothing has happened to him, but he is ill to-day. 5. Did your sister sit down at your house ? 6. She did not sit down, she was ill. 7. Did that cloth sell well? 8. It sold very well, we have sold it all. 9. Did you perceive your error erreur)? 10. We perceived it. 11. Were not your sisters mistaken in this affair? 12. They were not mistaken. 13. Were not your cousins weary of being in the country? 14. They were weary of being at my brother's. 15. What have you used to write your exercises ? 16. I used a gold pen, and my brother used a silver pen. 17. Have you used my penknife (canif)? 18. I have used it. 19. What has happened to you? 20. Nothing has happened to me. 21. Has your mother been well ? 22. She has not been well. 23. Did your brothers apply to their studies, at school? 24. They applied to their studies, and have finished their lessons. 25. What weather was it this morning? 26. It was very fine weather. 27. Has your sister taken much trouble in this affair ? She has taken much trouble for nothing. 29. Did the Dutch ladies walk? 30. They walked this morning. 31. How far did they walk ? 32. They walked as far as your brother's. 33. Have you given each other the hand? 34. We shook hands. 35. Those ladies flattered themselves very much

(beaucoup).

SECTION XLVI.-THE PASSIVE VERB (§ ̊55).

28.

1. The passive verb is conjugated by adding to the verb être in all its tenses, the past participle of an active verb. See model (§ 55).

1. Votre mère est-elle aimée de sa sœur ? 2. Elle est aimée de son frère et de sa sœur. 3. Les Italiens sont-ils aimés des Français? 4. Vos écoliers ne sont-ils pas blâmés ? 5. Ils sont blâmés quelquefois? 6. Sont-ils souvent punis? 7. Ils sont rarement punis. 8. Par qui êtes-vous puni quand vous êtes paresseux? 9. Je ne suis jamais puni. 10. Sa conduite a-t-elle été approuvée? 11. Elle a été approuvée de tout le monde. 12. Elle a été approuvée par ses amis. 13. Cet auteur est-il estimé ? 14. Il est estimé de tout le monde. 15. Le jardin du relieur est-il à vendre ou à louer? 16. On dit qu'il est à louer. 17. Le menuisier a-t-il fait faire un habit? 18. Il en a fait faire deux. 19. Les habits que vous avez achetés sont-ils usés

Ces vieillards sont respectés.

Those old men are respected.

The prepositions used after passive verbs are de and par, viz., de aimé de mes parents, I am loved by my parents; par in any other case, and to avoid the repetition of de, e.g., Cette maison a été bâtie par des ouvriers anglais, This house was built by English

has been blamed in a severe manner by his father,