AHMED VEFYK PASHA, President of the Turkish Chamber of Deputies, is one of the most cultivated men in Turkey, and has a considerable literary reputation. He was trained in the Translation Bureau of the office of Foreign Affairs, where especial opportunities are afforded to young Turks to make themselves acquainted with western languages and literature, and early attracted the attention of his superiors by his general intelligence and versatility. In 1848, he served on a commission to settle some questions which had arisen with Russia with reference to the affairs of the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and showed himself quite a match for the craftiness of Russian diplomacy. In 1860, as embassador to Paris, he had to deal with the situation which was caused by the permission which the great powers gave to France to station troops in Syria, for the purpose of preserving order, after the antichristian outbreaks at Damascus. He assumed an attitude which compelled the almost immediate withdrawal of the French troops, much to the disappointment of Napoleon III., who demanded and obtained his recall. When Sultan Abdul-Aziz, upon his accession to the throne, dispatched commissioners to all parts of the empire, to examine the administration and condition of the several provinces, Ahmed Vefyk was sent to Western Asia Minor, and returned with a full report of the abuses which he had found. The report had no practical result in effecting reforms; for those of the Turkish Government are seldom thorough, but Ahmed Vefyk is thankfully remembered in the provinces which he tried to serve. As Minister of Worship, he tried to reform the abuses which prevailed in that department of the Government. He was baffled by the powerful parties who were interested in the perpetuation of the abuses, and who had influence enough with the Prime Minister, Ali Pasha, to compel his resignation. He retired to private life, determined to hold no public office while Ali Pasha was Prime Minister, and busied himself in literary work. He published the works of several Turkish authors, mostly historical, translated one of Molière's plays, and published some lithographic maps with a Turkish text for the use of the schools. After the death of Ali Pasha, he was appointed by the new Grand Vizier, Mahmoud Nedim Pasha, director of the customs, and soon afterward his musteshar (private secretary), a position in which he performed the functions of a Minister of the Interior. Toward the end of 1872, he was appointed Minister of Instruction. His brusque manner made him unpopular, and he soon retired to private life. He attended the Congress of Orientalists, which was held at St. Petersburg in 1876, and presided over the Turco-Tartaric section of that body. He was chosen President of the Chamber of Deputies at the opening of the Turkish Parliament on the 18th of March, 1877, and was shortly afterward raised to the rank of a vizier, with the

title of pasha. When he was congratulated by the deputies on his elevation, he replied that he had been offered the title of pasha five times, but had always heretofore declined it; this time he would accept it, because he regarded the bestowal of it as a sign of the high esteem which his majesty, the Sultan, entertained for constitutional principles. In August, 1877, he was appointed Governor of the Adrianople district. Ahned Vefyk Pasha is not a pure Turk, but has both Semitic and Greek blood in his veins, and features of a striking Semitic type. Notwithstanding his high culture, he has an aversion to Europeans and European innovations, and is warmly attached to the past traditions of the Ottoman race.

ALABAMA. The first biennial session of the Legislature of Alabama under the revised constitution began in November, 1876, and ended on the 9th of February following. One of the most important acts provided for the organization and regulation of a public-school system. The school-revenues are to consist of annual interest at 6 per cent. on all sums received from sales of land granted by the United States for school-purposes; annual interest at 4 per cent. on the surplus revenue of the United States, deposited with the State under the act of Congress of June 23, 1836; annual rents, incomes, profits, or proceeds of sales of all lands hereafter given for the support of public schools; all sums accruing to the State as escheats; $130,000 from any money in the State Treasury not otherwise appropriated; and the proceeds of the poll-tax of $1.50 on each male inhabitant between the ages of 21 and 45, to be retained and distributed in each county. A superintendent of education is to be elected by the people every two years, beginning with the general election of August, 1878, to be commissioned by the Governor, and to receive a salary of $2,250 a year from the educational fund. He is authorized to have a clerk, at a salary of $1,400. His duties are fully defined, and he is required to make an annual report to the Governor as soon as practicable after the close of the school-year in September. A county superintendent is to be appointed in each county by the State. Superintendent, to have charge of school-moneys, and administer locally the affairs of the educational system. County superintendents are allowed a salary of $75, and 1 per cent. on the money disbursed by them. Three school trustees are to be elected every four years in each township, to have immediate supervision of the schools in their several townships. Trustees are required to "contract with teachers, when they are satisfied of their competency and good moral character, to teach in any of the public schools of their township, to pay them a pro-rata share of the school-fund apportioned to the township, according to the number of days reported in said teachers' annual report of the actual attendance of each pupil at the expiration of the scholastic year."

Teachers are required to keep records and make reports. Every child between the ages of 7 and 21 years is "entitled to admission into, and instruction in, any public school of its own race or color in the township in which he or she resides, or to any public school of its own race or color in the State of Alabama." Separate schools, separate records, and a separate distribution of the poll-tax, for the education of white and colored children, are provided for. The provisions of this act do not apply to cities and incorporated towns which are provided for by local school-laws.

At the time of the passage of this act, a protest was recorded against it by several members of the Assembly, because it so restricted

STATE CAPITOL, MONTGOMERY.

the powers and duties of county superintendents, and provided for the payment of teachers only once a year, and then not by a fixed compensation, but a pro-rata of the schoolfund, and for other reasons. The protest said: "It will be such a retrogression as will place our State, which now has a better educational system than many, and a larger fund than some of the States, behind them all, and even behind all the organized territories but one, in this important interest. This, I am satisfied, is not in accordance with the spirit of our new constitution nor the genius of our people. Our mineral wealth, our fertile soil and diversified products, and our genial climate, when combined with general intelligence among the people, will afford every element of State wealth and happiness. If we would utilize these elements and reap the benefits, we must keep pace with the spirit of the age in the matter of public education. It is mistaken economy which would suffer us to go backward now. Ignorance and its offsprings-indolence, vice, and crime-are too costly to be encouraged."

Some amendments, of no great importance, to the registration and election laws were adopted. An act was passed for the more efficient organization of the volunteer militia of the State. It is made subject to the orders of the Governor and to the discipline of the United States Army when in actual service. An act was passed authorizing the appointment of a commissioner of swamp and overflowed lands. An act to regulate the practice of medicine requires a diploma or certificate of qualification from some authorized board of medical examiners. The boards of censors of the medical association of the State, and of the county associations in affiliation with it, are constituted authorized boards of medical ex

aminers. The standard

of qualifications for the practice of medicine, and the rules governing the boards of examiners, are to be determined by the State medical association. The diploma or certificate required for the practice of medicine must receive the indorsement of the probate judge of the county, and be recorded in a book kept for the purpose. Any person practising without such diploma or certificate is made liable to a fine, and to imprisonment in default of payment of the fine.

An act providing for the payment of the obligations of the State, issued under the act of December 19, 1873, entitled "An act to provide for the funding of the domestic debt of the State," authorizes the Governor to issue 7 per cent. 20-years' bonds, not exceeding $1,000,000 in amount, for the purpose of taking up such obligations. Another act authorized the funding of the debts of municipal corporations, city, town, and county, in bonds running not more than 30 years, and bearing interest at not more than 6 per cent. The existing indebtedness must not be increased by the process, and the tax for the payment of interest and principal of the bonds is limited to onehalf of 1 per cent. on the value of taxable property. Among the other acts of the session was one forming a new county, called Cullman, out of portions of Blount, Winston, and Morgan, and providing for its organization.

A joint resolution authorized the Governor to negotiate with the State of Georgia for the purpose of ascertaining and defining the boundary-line between the two States, "so that all doubt may be removed as to the jurisdiction of the State of Alabama along the western

bank of the Chattahoochee River." Memorials were addressed to Congress, asking that the public lands in the State be granted in aid of public schools, and that an appropriation be made for the improvement of the Alabama River.

Under the changes in the constitution of this State, effected in 1876, elections and legislative sessions occur henceforth but once in two years. This year there was no State election, and consequently no political action calling for record. There was also no session of the Legislature for 1877-'8, and, as a consequence, no official reports of the financial or other interests of the Government for this year are obtainable. Unofficial statements represent the Treasury and the public institutions of the State as in a more satisfactory condition than for several years past.

The compromise of the State debt offered to the holders of the bonds had been accepted by most of them before the close of the year. When completed, it will leave the outstanding indebtedness as follows:

The receipts of the Treasury for the year ending September 30th were $1,034,559.53, including a balance of $54,967.32 from the preceding year. The disbursements amounted to $880,604.06, leaving an unexpended balance of $153,955.47. The estimated receipts for 1877-'8 are $925,000; expenditures, $852,752. ALDEN, Rear-Admiral JAMES, was born in Maine in 1809, and died in San Francisco, Cal., February 6, 1877. In 1828 he entered the Navy as a midshipman; in 1841 he was made a lieutenant, in 1863 a captain, in 1866 a commodore, and in 1872 he retired with the rank of rear-admiral. He accompanied the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, took part in naval operations during the Mexican War, and from 1848 to 1860 was engaged in the coast survey. At the beginning of the Civil War he was in command of the steamer South Carolina, and in 1862 he was transferred to the sloop-of-war Richmond. He was engaged in the capture of New Orleans, and in the attacks upon Vicksburg and Port Hudson. The steam-sloop Brooklyn, designated as the leading ship of the line, was commanded by Captain Alden in 1864, and participated in the engagement in Mobile Bay, and in two attacks on Fort Fisher. In 1868 he commanded the navy-yard in California. In 1869 he was appointed Chief of the Bureau of Navigation and Detail in the Navy Department. In 1871 he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and took command of the European squadron.

ALEXANDER II., autocrat of Russia, was born April 29 (old style, 17), 1818, and suc

ceeded his father, the Emperor Nicholas, March 2, 1855. Like all the Russian princes, his father intended to give him a military education, but, as his disposition was not at all warlike, the development of his mind received an essentially different direction under the guidance of the poet Shukovski. As Czarevitch he kept aloof as much as possible from the army, but devoted particular attention to diplomatic and administrative affairs. On several occasions, during the absence of his father from Russia, he acted as regent of the empire, and in 1848 was sent on a special mission to Berlin, Vienna, and other European capitals. He ascended the throne in the midst of the Crimean War, which he continued with undiminished energy, visiting in the fall of 1855 Odessa and the Crimea. The treaty of Paris in 1856 weakened the position of Russia in the East considerably, but it soon recovered from this blow by the cautious and yet energetic policy of Alexander. The subjection of the tribes of the Caucasus was continued and completed, while at the same time the extensive territories between the Caspian and the Aral seas were brought under Russian influence, and the greater part annexed to the empire. Much more important, however, than these conquests, were the reforms introduced by Alexander at home. With the accession of Ålexander, it seemed, indeed, as if a new spirit pervaded the empire, many of his first acts being indicative of a reformatory policy. Thus, the number of students at the Russian universities was no longer restricted, the difficulty of obtaining passports for traveling abroad was removed, and the rigor of the press laws was relaxed. But the most important act of his reign was the abolition of serfdom, by which millions of human beings were freed from bondage fully equal to that imposed upon the negro slaves. Steps were also taken to reorganize the army, while at the same time a system of public education, comprising all degrees from the primary school to the university, was introduced, so that now Russia can boast of an educational system superior to that of many of the older countries of Europe. On the other hand, he has been blamed for the barbaric severity with which his government suppressed the insurrection in Poland in 1863, and the severity with which the Russification of the Polish and Baltic provinces was conducted. Two attempts against his life, in 1866, and again in 1867, greatly diminished his reformatory zeal, and in some respects, particularly with regard to the liberty of the press, he has partly undone his former work. With regard to the army and navy, he remained true to his early distaste, and surrendered these two departments entirely into the hands of his brothers. (See NICHOLAS and MICHAEL.) At the beginning of his reign, he had the good fortune in finding in Prince Gortchakoff (q. v.) a statesman of great ability, and has ever since intrusted to his chancellor the supreme direction of the foreign policy of

Russia, giving most emphatic utterance to his private opinions only on the question of the maintenance of the most intimate relations with Germany. He was married in 1841 to Maria, daughter of the grand duke Ludwig II., of Hesse. His oldest son, Nicholas, born in 1841, died in 1865. He was betrothed to the Princess Dagmar of Denmark, who, after his death, married the second son of the emperor, Alexander, who is now the Czarevitch or heir apparent to the throne. The Czarevitch has given but few indications of his future policy, although it is pretty well known that he shares his father's views as to the continuance of friendly relations with Germany, and that he is in full sympathy with the most extreme section of the Panslavists. During the war in 1877, he commanded the army of Biela.

ALGERIA, a French province in Northern Africa, having an area of 258,317 square miles, and 2,416,225 inhabitants. The French colonies have never enjoyed that prosperity which the British colonies have had. The principal reason for this has been stated to be the difference in the system employed by the two nations in governing their colonies. While the British, in India, for instance, do not interfere with the customs and religion of the natives any more than is absolutely necessary, the French in Algeria have always striven to assimilate the natives to themselves. True to this principle, the Government of Algeria was begun by a centralization of its affairs in Paris. The little progress made by the colony caused, in 1860, a radical change to be made, which,

CONSTANTINE.

although it did not lead to a complete adoption of the British system, did away with the centralization. The report of the Civil GovernorGeneral, General Chanzy, shows that, since that time, a decided improvement has been made. The report begins with an opinion

on the working of the present system, and, although General Chanzy still regards assimilation as ultimately possible, he still favors this system. He particularly remarks with satisfaction that the "arbitrary and despotic" decrees had been discontinued, and that now, whenever the basis for a new institution was to be laid, or a new principle was to be established, the Government always fell back upon the law to do it. It was an important and beneficial measure not only to guarantee liberty of religion, but to assume the financial care of the Mohammedan church, by providing for the payment of all connected with the mosques. In the department of education, the French influence makes itself more strongly felt. The Mohammedan schools for superior instruction have been, indeed, restored by the law of July 30, 1876, but the Arabic instructors are assisted by French professors of history, geography, arithmetic, and of the principles of law. The Arabs do not seem to have primary schools for themselves, but there are French schools in which Arabic is taught. In 1875, there were 46,887 pupils in a total European population of 322,792. The police and the courts are arranged according to the French system. In a few provinces only have the native cadis been permitted to remain, and they are gradually decreasing, numbering 144 in 1875 to 204 in 1874. On the other hand, there were in 1875 69 justices of the peace. The criminal statistics for the province are very instructive, there being in 1875 one convicted Frenchman for every 2,751 inhabitants, one

convicted Jew for every 3,008, one convicted foreign Mohammedan for every 3,538, and one convicted native for every 5,226. One of the most important questions in the permanent organization of a new order of things is the regulation of real estate. This subject had been up to the present time very much neglected, as it presented great difficulties. In the greater part of the country the real estate is in the hands of the tribes, and a register does not exist. The law of July 26, 1873, for the first time attempted to bring this property into such order that a proper development of the country could proceed. In executing this law, however, it became apparent that its author had not foreseen all the possibilities that might arise. A special commission was therefore appointed to regulate the real estate relations. In agricult

ure, the country is decidedly progressing. In 1875, 19,676,290 cwt. of grain was raised on 2,950,000 hectares, against 16,000,000 cwt. on 2,733,370 hectares in 1874. The vineyards have increased from 16,688 hectares in 1872 to 20,000 hectares in 1875. Vine-growing has received a considerable impetus of late years, as a large number of vine-growers from Southern France, ruined by phylloxera, went to Algeria. Fruit and vegetable growing is also making considerable progress. Stock-raising still needs considerable encouragement, horse-raising only being satisfactory, so that Algeria on an av

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erage sends 3,000 horses to the army annually. In sheep, the country is very rich, their number being estimated at 9,699,000. The production of tobacco is also steadily increasing. In 1875, 6,670 hectares produced 5,622,000 kilogrammes, against 4,700,000 kilos on 6,460 hectares in 1874. Mining is also looking up very favorably. In the first half of 1876, not less than 234,000 tons of iron ore, 2,438 tons of copper, and 727 tons of lead, were exported.

AMERICA. The negotiations between Great Britain and the United States relative to the amount to be paid by the latter for the privilege of fishing in the bays and harbors and creeks of the Dominion of Canada, were, by the Treaty of Washington of 1871, to be conducted by a joint commission. This body met at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on June 15th, and awarded the sum of $5,500,000 to be paid to Great Britain within one year.

An unusual interest pervaded the United States at the beginning of the year, relative to counting the votes cast for President of the United States. It was manifest that the votes of Florida and Louisiana, and perhaps some other States, would be contested, and that the decision of the final result might turn on a single vote. The contested votes were therefore referred to a commission, created by act of Congress, whose decision, unless reversed by the action of both Houses of Congress, should be final. As the Houses were of op

posite political opinions, no such united action could take place. The Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, was finally declared to be the choice of the people. (See CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.)

An Indian war of more than usual importance threatened to break out during the year, but was finally averted. (See ARMY, UNITED STATES.)

The reduction of the wages of engineers and brakesmen on the railroads of the Middle States led to the most alarming and destructive riots. In many districts it was necessary

to summon the military power to guard the lines. (See LABOR STRIKES.)

The financial embarrassments of the country continued to increase throughout the year, and led to numerous suggestions and propositions relative to the currency. (See CURRENCY.)

The agricultural products of the country were unusually abundant.

The South and Central American States and Mexico have had a year of comparative quiet, though by no

means

free from trouble and

anxiety, such has been the general depression of commerce, industry, and, consequently, finance, in all of them. Indeed, this discouraging condition has been the main topic of interest in most, and the all-absorbing one in many, of those countries, to the exclusion, in a few cases, of questions involving the interests of more than one at the same time; as, for instance, the boundary question between Chili and the Argentine Republic.

A miniature naval combat in the Pacocha waters, off the coast of Peru, between two British war-vessels and the Peruvian iron-clad ram Huascar, took place in May last, and disturbed for a time the amicable relations between the two countries. The event is, however, not likely to be followed by any serious consequences of an international character.

Colombia, after a lull of almost 15 years, interrupted in 1875, seems once more to have entered into a period of civil strife, though of a less violent form than that by which she suffered so considerably in the year preceding.

Mexico bids fair to regain, though by different means, the ground lost in overthrowing the constitutional government bequeathed by Juarez, and establishing a new order of things under the present military administration. Indeed, were it not for the vexatious events which have followed each other in such rapid succession during 1877, frequently threatening to involve the Republic in an armed contest with the United States, the present state of