ceived his education at home, from his father, and from private tutors. An intimate friend of his father, an eminent solicitor, who had a great practice, and no son of his own, wished to make Benjamin the heir of his business, and took him into his office for a time. But the young Disraeli did not like the life of a lawyer, and was not ambitious of success in that direction. He therefore abandoned the solicitor's office, with its brilliant prospect of wealth and reputation, and devoted himself to literature. His personal beauty, refined manners, and remarkable powers of conversation, soon made him a favorite in society.

At the age of nineteen he visited Germany, and on his return to England published, in 1826-27, his famous novel "Vivian Grey," the chief characters in which were faithful pictures of himself, and of persons well known in English society. The originality, vivacity, and wit of this book gave it great celebrity, and it was translated into the principal languages of Europe. It is said, by several of his biographers, that at this period he was made editor of a daily paper called "The Representative;" but this is not true. In 1828 he published, in one volume, "The Voyage of Captain Popanilla," a gay and good-humored but flimsy satire, which met with little success. The next year he commenced an extended tour in Italy, Greece, Albania, Syria, Egypt, and Nubia, and returned in 1831. Shortly afterward he published his second fashionable novel, "The Young Duke," and in the following year another novel, "Contarini Fleming, a Psychological Autobiography," which Heinrich Heine pronounced to be "one of the most original works ever written,” and which received high praise from Goethe, and from Beckford, the author of "Vathek." Its subject is the development of the poetical nature, and it contains brilliant sketches of Italy, Spain, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The author himself has said of it recently, "It would have been better if a subject so essentially psychological had been treated at a more mature period of life." At this time Disraeli made his first attempt to enter Parliament. He presented himself to the electors of High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, near his father's residence, as a Tory-Radical, and was defeated by the Whig candidate. In December, 1834, le was again defeated in Wycombe. He next appeared in May, 1835, at Taunton, as a thoroughgoing Conservative. It was on this occasion that, when charged by somebody in the crowd with "O'Connellism," he called the great Irish agitator a "bloody traitor; " to which Mr. O'Connell made the retort, "For aught I know, the present Disraeli is the true heir-at-law of the impenitent thief who died on the cross.' Disraeli challenged O'Connell's son, Morgan O'Connell, who had taken up his father's quarrel; but the challenge was not accepted.

In the mean while Disraeli wrote and published several books. "The Wondrous Tale of

Alroy," an Oriental romance of extraordinary eloquence and power, depicting the adventures of a prince of the house of David, who, in the twelfth century, proclaimed himself the Messiah, and called the Jews of Persia to arms, appeared in 1833, accompanied by "The Rise of Iskander," a tale founded on the revolt of the famous Scanderbeg against the Turks in the fifteenth century; a political pamphlet entitled "What is He?" in 1834, in which he tried to explain his political views; "The Revolutionary Epic," and "The Crisis Examined," in the same year; and a Vindication of the English Constitution," in 1835. In 1836 he published a series of letters in the London Times, under the signature of "Runnymede," which were read with great interest on account of their remarkable wit and sarcasm. Toward the close of the same year he published a love story, "Henrietta Temple;" and in the spring of 1837 appeared "Venetia," a novel, in which he portrayed the characters and appearance of Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. At last he achieved the great object of his ambition. In the first Parliament of the reign of Victoria, being then thirty-two years of age, he obtained a seat as representative of the Conservative borough of Maidstone. His maiden speech was a failure; the House refused to listen, and clamored him down in the rude English fashion. He closed in the following words: "I am not. surprised at the reception I have experienced. I have begun several times many things, and I have often succeeded at last. I will sit down now, but the time will come when you will hear me." In July, 1839, this prediction began to be fulfilled; he made a speech which was listened to with attention, and praised for its ability. In that year he published his five-act tragedy "Count Alarcos," founded on an old Spanish ballad, and in the same year contracted a most fortunate marriage with the wealthy widow of Wyndham Lewis, his friend and colleague in the representation of Maidstone. The happy influence of this union upon his career he has himself acknowledged, in the graceful dedication of one of his novels to a "perfect wife."

In 1841 he was elected from the borough of Shrewsbury, and in 1841 published "Coningsby; or, The New Generation," which achieved great success, and had a wide circulation. The cause of its extraordinary popularity, apart from its great literary merit, was the fact of its principal characters being drawn from wellknown persons then living. It was regarded also as an exposition of the views and designs of the famous half literary, half political party then attracting public attention under the name of "Young England," of which Disraeli was one of the most conspicuous leaders. In 1845 he published "Sibyl; or, The Two Nations," which depicts, with much care, the condition of the English people at that period, and especially the Chartist agitation. In 1847 he was returned as one of the members from Bucking

hamshire, and in the same year he published "Ixion in Heaven," with other tales; and also "Tancred; or, The New Crusade," in some respects the best of his novels. He himself says, in the preface to his collected works (1870), that "Coningsby," "Sibyl," and Tancred," form a trilogy, the object of which was to delineate the origin and character of English political parties.

He now began to take a leading part in the House of Commons. His severe attacks on Sir Robert Peel, for alleged treachery to his party in the adoption of his free-trade policy, are among the most remarkable speeches in the annals of the British Legislature. They established Disraeli's reputation as one of the most powerful debaters and keen and polished satirists in that body. In 1849 he became the recognized leader of the Conservative party in Parliament. A biography of his father, Isaac Disraeli (1849), and a memoir of his personal and political friend, Lord George Bentinck (1852), were his next literary productions. In March, 1852, in the first Derby administration, he received the appointment of Chancellor of the Exchequer, was made a member of the Privy Council, and became leader of the ministerial party in the House of Commons. He went out of office with the rest of the Derby ministry, in December of the same year. In February, 1858, when Lord Derby again accepted the task of forming a new cabinet, after the downfall of Lord Palmerston, Disraeli again became Chancellor of the Exchequer. In February, 1859, he brought forward an elaborate plan of electoral reform, a principal feature of which was the extension of the suffrage to the whole body of the educated class, without regard to property. The bill was defeated in the House of Commons, March 31st, and Parliament was dissolved April 23d. The Derby administration retained its place till June 11th, when the new Parliament passed a vote of want of confidence, and the ministry resigned. It was succeeded by the Palmerston-Russell cabinet, and on the death of Lord Palmerston, October 18, 1865, by the RussellGladstone ministry, which remained in power till June, 1866, when, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the reform bill proposed by them, a vote of want of confidence was passed, and they resigned. Disraeli, during this period, was the leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. A new ministry was formed July 6th, the Earl of Derby being Prime Minister, and Disraeli Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was the chief supporter of the reform bill, signed by the Queen, August 15, 1867, which extended the right of suffrage to all householders in a borough, and to every person in a county who had a freehold of 408. The Earl of Derby resigning in February, 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister; but a majority in Parliament was opposed to the position which the ministry took on the question of disestablishing the Church of Ireland. Parlia

ment was dissolved, but the new election showed a strong majority for the opposition; and, without waiting for its meeting, Disraeli, with his colleagues, resigned, December 2, 1868, and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Mr. Gladstone.

In 1870, Disraeli published "Lothair," a politico-religious novel, aimed at the Fenians, Communists, and the Jesuits. It had a great success, its circulation in the United States alone exceeding 80,000 copies. In 1868 he was offered a peerage by the Queen, which he declined for himself, but accepted for his wife, who was made Viscountess Beaconsfield, on November 28th of that year. She died December 23, 1872. In February, 1874, the parliamentary elections having resulted in a Conservative majority, Mr. Gladstone resigned, and Mr. Disraeli again became Prime Minister.

On February 17, 1876, Mr. Disraeli introduced a bill in the House of Commons, to authorize the Queen to take, in addition to her other titles, that of "Empress of India." After much opposition the bill became a law, April 27th. On the 16th of August, Mr. Disraeli was raised to the peerage, with the title of Earl of Beaconsfield.

DOMINION OF CANADA. The year was marked by the close of the proceedings of the Fisheries Commission, under the Treaty of Washington, which had been in session for some time at Halifax.

The fishery question dates from the article in the Treaty of 1783, which conceded to the Americans the right to fish in the Gulf, the Grand Bank, and all other banks and waters in the deep sea; and the liberty to fish on certain British coasts, and in certain waters within the territorial jurisdiction of Great Britain, with liberty also to land on British coasts for drying and curing purposes. This article gave rise to no dispute until 1814, when, in negotiating the Treaty of Ghent, the British Commissioners maintained that the war had destroyed its validity. The Americans, on the other hand, contended that the fishery rights secured them by the Treaty of Independence were irrevocable and inalienable. The rival diplomatists left the question open, and nothing was said of it in the Treaty of Ghent. The controversy was revived in 1815, and an attempt was made to settle it in 1818 by the convention of that year, which granted the Americans the right to fish in the deep sea, and to dry and cure on British coasts, as by the Treaty of 1783, while they renounced all claim to fish within three marine miles of the British coasts, bays, creeks, or harbors; still retaining, however, the right to enter such coasts, bays, etc., for shelter, repairing damages, and purchasing wood.

This agreement did not allay the dispute, and the fishery question was embittered by the Canso and headland questions, involving, practically, the right of Americans to fish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, and the Bay Chaleur. This dispute, so far as it re

the United States and one from Great Britain, and a third to be nominated by the Emperor of Austria.

After a delay of nearly 6 years the Commission was organized, the three arbitrators being Mr. De Forse, Sir A. T. Galt, and ex-Judge Kellogg, of Massachusetts. Judge Foster, assisted by R. H. Dana, Jr., and others, had charge of the American case. The interests of Canada were confided mainly to Mr. Doutre, an eminent lawyer of Montreal.

The British case was divided into two partsone concerning Canada, the other Newfoundland. It held, in effect, that the privilege of fishing in American waters is worthless, and claimed an award of $12,000,000 for the use by Americans of the Canadian inshore fisheries for 12 years-the period of the treaty-and of $2,280,000 for the use of the Newfoundland fisheries. The American case denied substantially these claims. The Commission awarded Great Britain the sum of $5,500,000, to be paid within a year.

The timber-trade of the year has been far from satisfactory. While the railways are making better returns, the shipping interest has not found the year quite so advantageous. Some of the manufacturers are in an unsatisfactory state, principally through the competition of

surplus American stock. In others, notably the boot and shoe trade, there are both activity and progress. The coal-trade of Nova Scotia continues depressed.

In 1875 there were 1,968 failures, with liabilities $28,843,967. In 1876 there were 1,728 failures, liabilities $25,517,991. In 1877 the failures numbered 1,890, liabilities $25,510,147. There is an increase over 1876 in the amount of liabilities in each province save Quebec and Nova Scotia, although the increase in New Brunswick is principally chargeable to the disastrous fire in St. John. The average of liabilities per failure in 1877 was $13,497, against $14,767 in 1876.

A satisfactory treaty was completed in September between the Dominion Government and the Blackfeet Indians, by which the Indians cede a large tract of valuable territory to the Canadian Government. In return for the relinquishment of the Indian rights to the territory ceded, the Commissioners promised, on behalf of the Canadian Government, to set aside a certain reservation for each band of Indians, giving to each family of five persons one square mile of land; and, in addition, each chief is to receive a present of $25 in cash, a coat, and a Queen's silver medal. Four head men of each band are to receive each $15 in cash and a coat,

while the remainder of the band, men, women, and children, are to receive each $12. There is also promised to each band a present of ammunition, blankets, and various miscellaneous articles; and thereafter the following annual payments: To each chief, $25; each head man, $15; and to all others, irrespective of age, $5 per head. The chiefs and head men are to receive, moreover, every third year, a suit of clothing; and there is to be distributed yearly to each band included in the treaty ammunition and twine to the value of $750. The Indians are to receive agricultural implements, seed grain and potatoes, cattle, and carpenters' tools. The Government undertakes to establish a school on each reservation when the Indians become settled and ready for instruction. The Indians are guaranteed the right of hunting, trapping, and fishing on the ceded lands, subject to such regulations as the Government may devise. The Indians pledge themselves to observe the conditions of the treaty, and conduct themselves as loyal subjects of the Queen. They promise to obey the laws by maintaining peace and order among themselves and with

the other tribes, and also with all the subjects of her Majesty, and not to molest travelers or other persons. They agree to assist all officers of the Queen in bringing to justice any Indian guilty of violating the laws.

The several tracts of northwest territory, as surrendered by separate Indian treaties, may be generally described as follows: Treaty No. 1, effected August 3, 1871, Province of Manitoba, 18,600 square miles. Treaty No. 2, effected August 21, 1871, adjoining and northwest of Manitoba, 32,000 square miles. Treaty No. 3, effected October 3, 1873, east of Manitoba, and extending to the limits of Ontario, 49,700 square miles. Treaty No. 4, effected September 15, 1874, and supplementary treaty, September 21, 1874, west of treaty No. 2, south of South Saskatchewan, and extending from Lake Winnipeg, goes southwest to the Cypress Hills, 75,700 square miles. Treaty No. 5, effected September 20, 1875, and supplementary treaty, September 24, 1875, embracing territory generally surrounding Lake Winnipeg, 102,000 square miles. Treaty No. 6, effected in 1876, territory traversed by the main Saskatchewan,