Cabool, with great regularity, and had enjoyed great security under the protection of the mountain tribes. It was furthermore definitely settled that the treaty of 1873, according to which the Amir was to receive 20,000 breech-loaders and a sum of about $500,000 as a present for the concessions made by him with regard to the border of Seistan toward Persia, could not be executed. He actually received the arms and one-half the money, but, upon being asked to determine the time and place when he would wish to receive the other half, he answered, that he did not care for the money, he would make a present of it to England, the

THE CITADEL, HERAT.

amount was too small. This conduct appears all the more insolent, when we are told that the state treasury was entirely empty, and the greatest extortions were made use of in order to obtain money. Thus all the high dignitaries of the capital were recently taxed large sums because they were said to have defrauded the public treasury. In order to avoid a criminal prosecution, they all paid the sums of money demanded of them, but they all sought to retrieve their losses from the people; and, as the officials have full power to plunder their subordinates, such acts tend to increase the existing dissatisfaction." Herr von Schlagintweit then goes on to say that in India it is generally assumed that this line of conduct at Cabool is brought about by the negotiations of the Amir for Russian friendship. It is now known that a Russian agent was in Cabool quite recently, is still there, and made some definite propositions, but did not have an official character. Indian papers stated that the Russian Government had offered about $3,000,000 for the privilege of placing a Russian force in cantonments on Afghan territory, somewhere near the border. This offer was read in a grand durbar in Cabool on July 15th. All the mem

bers expressed themselves to the effect that the Russians are great in promising, but that they were not known to keep their promises. One of the Sirdars even remarked: "These golden but treacherous promises have brought us unfriendly relations with the British Government for India, and I cannot but wonder that the Amir is delighted with these propositions, and seriously believes in the fulfillment of the promises." To this the Amir replied: "I am convinced that I may be deceived by the Russians, but I do not wish to break off negotiations with them yet." The assembly finally resolved to submit the Russian proposi

tion to the Akhund of Swat, and in the mean while admit the Russian agent to the durbar without showing him any particular honors; on the other hand, the British agent, Mohammed Khan, was not to be invited to the sessions till the close of the Russo-Turkish war, as the honesty of the British sympathies for the cause of Islam was still to be proved. At a later session the Russian agent made a proposal that Russian troops be granted a free passage through Afghanistan, and the right to establish garrisons at any point in case the British should advance from Quetta against Herat. This proposition was immediately rejected by the Amir, who fears nothing more than foreign troops in his dominions, and who refused to receive an Englishman as permanent British ambassador, because the Indian Government desired to furnish him with a considerable escort. Herr von Schlagintweit adds that this news comes from too good a source to be doubted.

At the Conference of Peshawer, Sir Lewis Pelly made the continuance of the subsidy dependent on the following conditions: To accept a permanent English resident at Cabool, and to place at the head of the Afghan troops a number of English officers, who should take care that the soldiers were regularly paid. As Shere Ali's pride did not allow him to accept these proposals, which would have reduced him to the condition of a vassal, and hampered his freedom of action, the yearly subsidy was stopped. Notwithstanding this unsuccessful issue of the Peshawer negotiations, the Afghan Amir long hesitated to break openly with his old allies, though he was instigated to do so by the Akhund of Swat and by his own people, who more than once expressed their hostility

to the English. The aged Akhund, who is a violent hater of British influence, and enjoys immense respect not only in his own little country, but throughout the whole of Afghanistan, repeatedly demanded that Shere Ali should immediately break off all relations with England, reproaching him with hypocrisy and subserviency to the Giaours. Having convinced himself that the Amir still hesitated to take a decided step, the Akhund, on his own authority, called upon the Kadis of Cabool and Candahar to declare a holy war against the English. In consequence of this, a great popular demonstration was made under the auspices of the clergy, and Shere Ali began to prepare for war. The taxes on agriculture and manufactures were considerably augmented, and each house had to furnish a certain amount of iron in the form of kettles, pots, and similar articles for casting cannon. The casting operations have proceeded very slowly-not more than three or four guns per month-but the raising of troops has been rapid enough. At present,

it is said, there are 66,000 men in the neighborhood of Cabool; and in all the provinces a conscription is going on.

Upon the breaking out of the war with Russia, the Sultan of Turkey sent an embassador to Shere Ali with presents. He did not reach Cabool until September, owing to the delay on the part of the Amir in granting him permission to enter his country. Upon his arrival the Amir refused to accept the Turkish presents, unless the embassador should declare that no conditions were connected with their acceptance, such as, to break off all intercourse with the Russians, and to form an alliance with the British. He declared himself unable to assist Turkey, as he was too far distant and too weak; nor could he ally himself with the British, as long as they held territories which in reality belonged to him.

AFRICA. The area and population of the different divisions and subdivisions of Africa were estimated as follows at the close of 1877:

An important change took place in 1877 in the political aspect of Africa. An independent state, the Transvaal Republic, after a separate existence of exactly twenty-five years, ceased to exist, and was incorporated in the British dominions. The British commissioner, who had been appointed to watch the affairs in the republic, came to the conclusion that, if the inhabitants were permitted to proceed unrestrained, they would not only bring about their own destruction, but would also endanger the British colonies. Under these circumstances, he considered it advisable to proclaim the annexation of the country to the British crown, which he did on April 12. (See TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC.)

The Cape Colony, which received a new governor in March, in the person of Sir Bartle Frere, was the scene of a Caffre war in the latter part of the year, which resulted in the acquisition of new territory. (See CAPE COLONY.)

10,921,700

20,461,000 566,217 8,315,400

199,921,600

The blockade of the coast of Dahomey by British men-of-war was raised in May.

Advices from Congo, dated January 15th, stated that the British war vessel Avon had destroyed seven villages on the Congo River, and killed three natives, as a punishment for plundering the American schooner Thomas Nickerson, of New York. This vessel had been captured by the natives, and about thirty tons of coffee were carried off up the country. She was fired by the Avon, in order to prevent further plundering.

The King of Gaboon died during the early part of the year, aged nearly one hundred years. His son, Adande, on succeeding him, abolished a number of objectionable customs. He discharged the hundred women of his father's harem, liberated fifty slaves, and abolished the sacrifice of human beings at religious rites.

Among the works of the year containing information on Africa are, V. L. Cameron, "Across Africa" (2 vols., London, 1877); M..

Th. von Heuglin, "Reise in Nordost-Afrika" (2 vols., Brunswick, 1877).

The war between Russia and Turkey also made itself felt in Egypt, which, as a tributary to the Porte, was bound to furnish troops and money. After a great deal of deliberation the Egyptian Government decided to furnish a contingent of troops, but declared itself unable to do any more. The English Government manifested its interest in the future of Egypt in a very decided manner, and rumors were afloat that it intended to purchase from the

Sultan his suzerain rights over the country. (See EGYPT.)

The relations of Abyssinia with Egypt were not disturbed by war during 1877, although a

COUNTRIES.

DAHOMANS-THE KING'S DANCE.

scene of civil war between King Johannes and the King of Shoa, in which the latter seemed to have been worsted. (See ABYSCINIA.)

AGRICULTURE. The International Statistical Congress, which assembled at St. Petersburg in 1872, confided to the Statistical Corps of the French Government the compilation of the Agricultural Statistics of Europe. The work has recently appeared, and it contains returns chiefly for the year 1873. In some instances the average production is given; in others that of the year. The two following tables show the crop of wheat, etc., in the various countries:

Austria produces an average of 10,172,028 bushels of maslin; Würtemberg, 778,362; Baden, 805,992; Hesse-Darmstadt, 266,567; Belgium, 2,034,383; France, 21,998,669. Great Britain produces an average of 6,063 tons of sugar-beets; Hungary, 686,571; Würtemberg, 114,013; Baden, 39,735; Hesse-Darmstadt, 420,448; Saxe-Weimar, 13,229; Saxe-Altenburg, 22,229; Holland, 475,766; Belgium, 613,666; France, 9,598,989. The following is the average product of hops: Great Britain, 56,441 tons; Denmark, 585; Sweden, 2,205; Finland, 220; Hungary, 864; Bavaria, 23,857; Würtemberg, 8,535; Baden, 3,140; Holland, 242; Belgium, 5,474; France, 5,100.

The average annual production of cereals of all sorts in Europe is estimated at 5,153,808,000 bushels, of which 1,657,392,000 bushels, or nearly a third, are assigned to Russia; 766,260,000 bushels, or nearly 15 per cent., to Germany; 709,500,000 bushels, or nearly 14 per cent., to France; 567,600,000 bushels, or over 11 per cent., to Austria-Hungary. Europe produces a little over 17 bushels per capita of her population. The average ratio per capita of the different countries of Europe is given as follows: Roumania, 40.8 bushels; Denmark, 33; Russia, 23; Prussia, 22; France, 19; Hungary, 191; Bavaria, 181; Sweden, 15.6; German duchies, 14.5; Belgium and Spain, 13.9; Austria and Würtemberg, 13.3; Ireland and Turkey, 13; Finland, 12.5; Great Britain, 11.9; Saxony and Servia, 10.7; Holland, 9; Norway and Greece, 8.8; Italy and Portugal, 7.9; Switzerland, 5.9.

Estimating the average consumption at 15.6 bushels per capita for food, seed, and various manufactures, Europe produces about enough to meet her own demand, except in wheat and some other breadstuffs, which exhibit a considerable deficiency to be supplied by importation.

Spain, Italy, and France raise a larger proportion of wheat than any other grain; Finland, Switzerland, and Germany, of rye; Scandinavia and Germany, of barley; Ireland, Hungary, and North Germany, of oats. Maize holds first rank in Roumania, Servia, and Portugal; buckwheat has but little importance, except in Holland and France. Oats is the leading crop of Europe, followed by wheat and rye.

Of potatoes, Ireland produces 23 bushels per capita; the German Empire, 18.1; Holland, 14.5; Belgium, 11.6; France, 10.2; Scandinavia, 9.9; Austria-Hungary, 81; Russia and Finland, 4; Great Britain, 34; Italy, 1.1; Portugal, 0.85; Spain, 0.28. In the other States this culture is still more insignificant.

The "industrial plants," including colza, flax, hemp, sugar-beet, hops, and tobacco, are grown to a considerable extent in those countries in which a varied culture is pursued. Roumania produces 884 bushels of colza per hundred of her population; Belgium, 344: Holland, 27; France, 22; Hungary, 201; Germany, 14; Denmark, 4. This plant is a species of cabbage, raised for its seed, from which a kind of lamp-oil is expressed. The largest proportion of hemp is raised in Hungary, amounting to 61 pounds per capita; Germany averages 50; Finland, 434; France, 32; Sweden, 20; Roumania, 12; Belgium, 8. In flax Ireland takes the lead, producing 13.9 pounds per capita; Belgium, 10.14; Holland, 74; France, 3, etc. France is the great sugar-beet country of Europe, her crops averaging 531 pounds per capita; next, Holland, 260 pounds; Belgium, 233 pounds; Hungary, 883; Germany, 74.3. hops, Germany and Great Britain each average about 41 pounds per capita; France less than 2, etc. Tobacco-culture is limited in Europe, yet Hungary produces 5 pounds per capita, and Germany 4; smaller products are noted in

Of

France.. Portugal.. Roumania.

7,666,407 9,524.886 1,863,328 1,561,560

4,551,400 8,656,770

17,191,293 8.424.888 4,575,571 8,483.262 1,932,632 810,980

310,820 5,700.086

5,933.791 110,193,281 6,449,571 11,000,971 11,518,843 20,175,113

In the above classification, lands under tillage, or regular plough-culture, whether in a system of rotation or otherwise, constitute the first grand division, which includes cereals, farinaceous crops (such as pease, beans, and potatoes), grass crops, and all others, together with land in fallow. The other grand division of productive lands, not subjected to regular or periodical plough-breaking, includes orchards, vineyards, pastures, and woods and forests. A wide range of difference is found in the pro

portions of productive area in different countries. The States of the German Empire represented in the above table have utilized nearly the whole of their respective territories in some form of production, their proportion of waste land varying from 4 to 11.3 per cent. of the whole. At the other extreme, as might be expected, are those bleak, inhospitable northern regions, Finland, Sweden, and Norway. The two former have about half, and the latter nearly three-fourths, of their territories entirely unproductive. It is remarkable that Portugal, in a bright southern climate, has less than half her area occupied with any sort of production. This is partly due to the very large surface covered by her mountain ranges. Great Britain utilizes but 58 per cent. of her territory in agricultural production, and 28 per cent. of her agricultural lands are unused, leaving about 14 per cent. for sites of cities and towns, lakes, streams, roads, etc. France and Belgium utilize in agriculture fivesixths of their lands, including mountains and 12 per cent., Holland nearly a third, and Irerivers. Austro-Hungary loses only from 10 to land nearly a fourth of their respective areas.

the largest proportion, in descending order, Of lands under tillage, the States showing and Hesse-Darmstadt, each of which has over are Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Weimar, Belgium, half her territory under plough-culture.

*Including cows.