Printing Schöffer that many of their workmen were obliged to seek employment else where. The truth seems to be that the inventor of the new art was Coster; that Gutenberg and Schöffer made important improvements on it, and aided by Fust widely spread the results of the new art. From this period printing made rapid progress throughout Europe. In 1465 we find works printed at Naples; and in 1467 Sweynheim and Pannartz, two of the most celebrated and extensive old printers, established themselves at Rome. In 1469 we find printing at Venice and Milan; in 1470 at Paris, Nuremberg, and Verona; and by 1472 the art had become known in all the important cities of the continent. In 1490 it had reached Constantinople, and by the middle of the next century had extended to Russia and America. At the invention of printing the character of type employed was the old Gothic or German. The Roman type was first introduced by Sweynheim and Pannartz at Rome in 1467, and the Italic by Aldus Manutius about 1500. Schöffer, in his edition of Cicero's De Officiis, produces for the first time some Greek characters, rudely executed; but the earliest complete Greek work was a grammar of that language printed at Milan in 1476. The Pentateuch, which appeared in 1482, was the first work printed in the Hebrew character, and the earliest known Polyglot Bible - Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, Greek, Latin issued from the press of Genoa in 1516. Several printers' names have become famous not only for the beauty of their types, but also for the general excellence of their productions. Among these may be noted: The Aldi of Venice (1490-1597), Baden of Paris (14951535), Estiennes or Stephens of Paris (1502-98), Plantin of Antwerp (151489), Wechel of Paris and Frankfort (1530-72), Elzevir of Leyden and Amsterdam (1580-1680), and Bodoni of Parma (1768-1813). The art of printing was first introduced into England by William Caxton, who established a press in Westminster Abbey in 1476. (See Carton.) In the midst of a busy mercantile life, while resident in the Netherlands, he began about 1468 to translate Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye of Raoulle le Fevre. This work was finished in 1471, and Caxton set about learning the new art of printing, with the view of publishing his book. The Recueil, the first English printed book, appeared in 1474, printed either at Bruges or Cologne. In 1475 The Game and Playe of the Chesse, the second English book printed, appeared at Bruges, Printing and in 1476 he began to practice the new art at Westminster. The first book printed in England, the Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, was printed in November, 1477. Between that date and 1491 Caxton printed upwards of seventy volumes, including the works of Lydgate, Gower, Chaucer, Malory, etc. Upwards of twenty-two of these were translated by himself from French, Dutch, or Latin originals. The whole amounted to more than 18,000 pages, nearly all of folio size, some of the books having passed through two editions, and a few through three. Caxton distinguished the books of his printing by a particular device, consisting of the initial letters of his name, with a cipher between. His first performances were very rude, the characters resembling those of English manuscripts before the Conquest. Most of his letters were joined together; the leaves were rarely numbered, the pages never. At the beginning of the chapters he only printed, as the custom then was, a small letter, to intimate what the initial or capital letter should be, leaving that to be made by the illuminator, who wrote it with a pen, with red, blue, or green ink. Caxton's two most distinguished successors were Wynkin de Worde and Richard Pynson. The former, a native of the Dukedom of Lorraine, served under Caxton, and after the death of his master successfully practiced the art of printing on his own account. The books which he printed are very numerous, and display a rapid improvement in the typographical art. He died in 1534. Pynson was a native of Normandy, and it is supposed that he also served under Caxton. The works which he printed are neither so numerous nor so beautiful as those of Wynkin de Worde. He was the first printer, however, who introduced the Roman letter into England. To Wynkin de Worde and Pynson succeed a long list of ancient typographers, into which we cannot enter here. a The first Scottish printers of whom we have any authentic account were Walter Chapman, a merchant in Edinburgh, and Andrew Millar, who, in consequence of a patent from James IV, established press at Edinburgh in 1507. In 1536 Thomas Davidson printed, in the Fryere's Winde,' Edinburgh, the Chronicles of Scotland, by Boethius, and in 1540 the works of Sir David Lindsay. Robert Leprevik printed extensively both at Edinburgh and St. Andrews. Thomas Vautrollier was another old Scottish printer, who brought out, in 1585, Calvin's Institutes; in 1589 Tusser's Points of Good Husbandry; and in 1597 the De Printing Printing monologie of King James VI. Edward up types from their respective boxes, as Raban, a native of Gloucestershire or required to reproduce the words in the Worcestershire, introduced the art into author's manuscript that has been supAberdeen about 1620-22, and continued plied to him. The types are lifted by the printing there till 1649. In 1638 George right hand and placed in a composing Anderson, by special invitation of the stick held in the left. The composing magistrates, set up the first printing- stick is a sort of box wanting one side, press in Glasgow. In later days Scotland and having one end movable to enable it highly distinguished itself by the extent to be adjusted to any required length of and beauty of its typographical produc- line. When the words in the stick have tions. Ruddiman, who flourished at increased till they nearly fill the space Edinburgh during the first half of the between the ends they are spaced out,' eighteenth century, was one of the most that is, the blanks between the words are learned printers which any country has so increased or diminished as to make produced. Printing was introduced in them exactly do so. Line is in this way the New England States of America in added to line till the stick is full, when it 1639, the first known print being the is emptied on to a flat board with edges, Freeman's Oath; in 1640 what is known called a galley. Subsequently the column as the Bay Psalm-book was printed in of types so produced is divided into porCambridge, Massachusetts. Benjamin tions of definite length, these are furFranklin was one of the first to study nished with headlines and folios, and beand practice the art of printing at Bos- come pages. ton, and afterwards practiced it for a long time in Philadelphia. Processes. The various letters and marks used in printing are cast on types or rectangular pieces of metal, having the sign in relief on the upper end. These types, with the low pieces required to fill up spaces, are placed in cells or boxes in a shallow tray or case in such way that any letter can be readily found. The cases are mounted on a stand or frame, so that they may lie before the person who is to select and arrange the types, technically styled a compositor. The Roman types used are of three kinds: an alphabet of large capitals (A B C, etc.), one of small capitals (A B C, etc.), and one of small letters (a b c, etc.), called lower-case by the compositor. Of italic characters only large capitals and lowercase are used. Besides these there are many varieties of letter, such as Old English, and imitations of manuscript letters, the mention of which could only be serviceable to the practical printer. Types are of various sizes, the following being those in use among British printers for book work: - English, Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, Pearl, Diamond. English has 5 lines and Diamond 17 lines in an inch. Type is now cast on the standard point system, pica, or 12 point, being the standard, Six pica ems measure 1 inch. Brevier type is equal to 8 point, nonpareil 6 point. The other types named above are irregular sizes as measured by the point system. All sizes from 5 to 12 point are made. Large, display type fonts are multiples of 6 point. (This Encyclopædia is set in Minion, or 7 point.) Composing. The main part of the work of a compositor consists in picking The matter so set up is now proofed; that is, an impression is printed from it, and this goes into the hands of the printer's reader. The reader compares the proof with the author's manuscript, marks all deviations, and corrects the compositor's errors. When these have been put right a fresh proof is taken and is sent to the author for his inspection. When the pages of a book are finally passed by the author as correct, they may be arranged either for casting (done by stereotype or by electrotype process) or for going to press to be printed from. If the former, they are fixed, probably singly, in a rectangular frame of iron, or chase, as it is called, by means of wedges, and sent to the foundry. If the latter, so many of them as are required to cover one side of the sheet of paper to be printed on are fixed in a correspondingly larger frame and sent to the printing press or machine. The pages thus arranged and fixed in the chase is called a forme. They are placed in such order that when the impression is taken off, and the sheet folded, the pages will follow each other in proper order. When there are more sheets than one in a work it is advisable to have these readily distinguishable from each other. To secure this, letters (called signatures) are placed at the bottom of the first page of each sheet, A for the first sheet, B for the second, c for the third, and so on through the alphabet. Thus, by merely looking at the signature the binder of the book can be sure that the sheets follow in proper sequence. When the required number of copies have been printed from a forme of movable type, or when casts have been taken from a page, the chase is carried back Printing Printing to the composing room, and the compos- manipulation of keys on a keyboard itor undoes the work that was formerly done, by distributing all the types, that is, putting them back into their respective cells in the case. They are then ready for further combinations as required. Composing Machines.- Several attempts have been made to expedite the work of the compositor by calling in the aid of machinery. A large portion of the compositor's work consists in correcting the reader's and the author's proofs, in arranging the types in pages, in imposing these pages in formes, and in dressing the formes for press. These processes are so varied and intricate as to be beyond the range of machinery. For composing newspapers, where the work is plain and speed is of the first consequence, composing machines of different sorts have proved themselves efficient aids, and have come into use to an extent that a few years ago was considered very unlikely. The same method has been applied to bookmaking and the old system of hand-setting of types has been largely replaced by machine-setting. somewhat like a typewriter's by the compositor. When a line of matrices is composed it is removed to another part of the machine, where it is automatically spaced out, then molten metal is injected into it, a line-o'-type' cast in one piece is produced; this line, dressed by cutters to correct thickness and height, takes its place in a column, while the matrices themselves go back along rails, and drop off into their respective channels as they are reached. When it is remembered that after the compositor has set up the line of matrices, checked it as correct, and turned a switch, the whole of the subsequent operations indicated above are purely automatic, some idea may be formed of the amount of ingenuity expended on this piece of mechanism. It is used almost universally in newspaper offices throughout the entire world, and is very largely employed in bookmaking. Another machine, the MonCotype, of later invention, casts single types, and thus forms a mechanical successor to the older methods, and is now coming into extensive use, being distinguished by a rich variety of type faces. Printing-When the form of types has been prepared for press by the compositor it is passed over to the pressmen, who form a distinct craft. The act being not only a composing but a type of printing has two operations. First casting machine. In its main features there is the application of ink to the face the linotype is wholly unlike any pre- of the type, and then the pressing of a vious machine. No types are used; metal sheet of paper on the types with such matrices similar to those employed by weight as to cause the ink to adhere to typefounders take their place. The few it. The ink used is a thick, viscid fluid of these matrices used are stored in ver- made of boiled linseed-oil and lampblack. tical channels as types are in other ma- It is applied to the type by means of a chines, and they are similarly brought roller covered with an elastic compound together into words and lines on the of melted glue and treacle. When the Printing printing is being done on hand-press the roller is carried on a light frame having handles, by which it is gripped by the hands of the pressman or printer, who in working passes the roller several times over an inked table, and then backwards and forwards over the forme. When the printing is done on machine, two or more rollers are placed in suitable bearings, and generally the forme is made to travel Linotype Matrices. under them and receive ink in passing; continuous web from a reel. Printing are followed for obtaining the impression which produces the printed sheet. The first and simplest is by the advance toward each other of two flat surfaces, one (the bed) carrying the type-forme, the other (the platen) carrying the blank sheet to be printed. The second is by the rotation of a cylinder above a typetable traveling backwards and forwards, the table being in contact with the cylinder in advancing and free in returning. The third and most recently adopted method is the contact of two cylinders revolving continuously in the same direction, one carrying the type-surface and the other bringing against it a continuous web of paper, which it afterwards cuts into sheets. Presses or machines of the first class are called platen, the second cylinder, and the third rotary. The press used by Gutenberg was of a very rude description, the ink being applied by means of leather-covered balls stuffed with soft material, and having suitable handles, and the pressure being obtained by a screw which brought down a flat block or platen. The first imbeen the construction of guides, enabling provement on this device seems to have the type-forme to be run under the impressing surface and withdrawn with arose, chiefly that of obtaining a rapid facility. Other necessities soon after return of the platen from the position LBION These operations, purely mechanical, have, however, to be preceded by a stage of preparation called making ready, which calls for more or less skill and taste from the workman. His craft in plain work is to produce printed sheets the letters or reading on which shall be sharp yet solid, with the color or depth of black uniform all over the sheet, and each sheet uniform with the others which are to form the book. This is attained partly by properly regulating the supply of ink, but mainly by getting uniformity of pressure, as any portion of a sheet more firmly impressed than another will bring off more color. When there are illustrations in the forme the printer's craft is the reverse of this, for he seeks to give artistic effect to the pictures by all shades of color, from deep black in the shadows to the lightest tints in the skies. These effects are got entirely by variations in pressure, the dark parts being at which it gave the pressure without heavily pressed, while the paper barely the screw requiring to be turned back; touches the inked surface in the light but it was not till the year 1620 that tints. Mechanism of Printing. The mechanism of printing, at first of a very simple kind, has latterly attained to great perfection and efficiency. Three methods Albion Press. this was met by the invention of Willem Janszoon Blaeu, a native of Amsterdam. Charles Mahon, the third earl of Stanhope, was the author of the next great improvement in printing-presses, about Printing Printing 1800. He devised Я combination of doubtedly the first work printed by ma levers, which he applied to the old screw- chinery. press. These levers brought down the A further improvement was made in platen with greatly increased rapidity, May, 1848, by Applegarth. His machine, and what was of still greater importance, which printed 10,000 impressions per converted at the proper moment that hour, had a vertical cylinder 65 inches motion into direct pressure. The pres- broad, on which the type was fixed, sursure was under control and capable of rounded by eight other vertical cylinders, easy adjustment. The press was of each about 13 inches diameter and coviron, not of wood as was the case with ered with cloth, round which the paper all previously constructed presses, and was led by tapes, each paper or impresit exhibited a number of contrivances of sion cylinder having a feeding apparatus the most ingenious character for facili- and two boys tending. The type used tating the work of the pressman. In was the ordinary kind, and the form 1813 John Ruthven, a printer of Edin- was placed on a portion of the large burgh, patented a press on the lever prin- cylinder. The surface of the type formed ciple, with several decided improvements. a portion of a polygon, and the regularThe Columbian Press, invented in 1814 ity of the impression was obtained by by G. Clymer, of Philadelphia, and the pasting slips of paper on the impression Albion Press, were the latest contriv- cylinders. ances. Even in its best form the handpress is laborious to work and slow in operation, two workmen not being able to throw off more than 250 impressions in an hour. It therefore became imperative, especially for newspapers, to devise a more expeditious and at the same time a more easy method of taking impressions from types. So early as the year 1790 Mr. Nicholson took out letters-patent for printing by machinery. His printing-machine never became available in practice, yet he deserves the credit of being the first who suggested the application of cylinders and inking-rollers. About ten years later König, a printer in Saxony, turned his attention to the improvement of the printing-press, with a view chiefly to accelerate its operation. Being unsuccessful in gaining assistance in his native country to bring his scheme into operation, he came to London in 1806. There he was received with equal coldness, but ultimately, with the assistance of Mr. Bensley, he constructed a machine on the platen or hand-press principle. Afterwards he adopted Nicholson's cylinder principle, and succeeded in producing a machine which so satisfied Mr. Walter, proprietor of the Times newspaper, that an agreement was entered into to erect two to print that journal. On the 28th of November, 1814, the reader of the Times was informed that he held in his hand a paper printed by machinery moved by the power of steam, and which had been produced at the rate of 1800 impressions per hour. This is commonly supposed to be the first specimen of printing executed by steam machinery; but König's platen machine was set to work in April, 1811, and 3000 sheets of signature H of the Annual Register for 1810 were printed by it. That was un Few machines, however, of this construction were made, a formidable rival having appeared, devised by Messrs. Hoe & Co., of New York. It was constructed with from two to ten impression cylinders, each of them printing from a set of types placed on a horizontal central cylinder of about 6 feet in diameter, a portion of which was also used as a cylindrical ink-table, each of the encircling cylinders having its own inking rollers and separate feeder. A machine of this construction, having ten impression cylinders, threw off at the rate of 18,000 impressions an hour. Repeated attempts were made by inventors to construct a machine which would print from the continuous roll or web in which paper is supplied by the paper-making machine. Experiments were conducted successfully by Nicholson, Stanhope, Sir Rowland Hill, Applegarth, and others, but the difficulties for the time proved insurmountable. These, however, were at length overcome, and the result is the construction of a class of machines which possess the merit of being at once simpler, more expeditious, and more economical in requiring less attendance than any previous contrivance. The first machine on the web principle that established itself in the printingoffice was the 'Bullock,' an American contrivance. It was, however, speedily eclipsed by the 'Walter Press,' invented and constructed on the premises of the London Times. Since then several other rotary machines have been invented and brought into extensive use. The opendelivery' machine (that is, unprovided with an apparatus for folding the papers) of the latter firm may be taken as a type of rotary machines, and is shown in the figure. The roll of paper P is placed im |