who say, that the Christians enjoyed peace under Severus, up to the time when he enacted laws that exposed them to the loss of life and property, which was in the beginning of the next century. For, as the laws of the [former] emperors were not abrogated, and among these, the edicts of Trajan and Marcus Antoninus were very unjust; it was in the power of the presidents to persecute the Christians with impunity whenever they pleased. These calamities of the Christians, near the end of this century, induced Tertullian to compose his Apologeticum and some other works.2 § 8. It will appear less unaccountable, that so holy a people as the Christians should suffer so much persecution, if it be considered, that the patrons of the ancient superstition continually assailed them with their railings, calumnies, and libels. Their reproaches and calumnies, of which we have before spoken, are recounted by the writers of the Apologies. The Christians were attacked, in a book written expressly against them, by Celsus, the philosopher; whom Origen in his confutation of him, represents as an Epicurean, but whom we, for substantial reasons, believe to have been a Platonist of the sect of Ammonius.3 This miserable caviller deals in slander, as Origen's answer to him shows. And he does not so much attack the Christians, as play off his wit, which is not distinguished for elegance and refinement. Fronto, the rhetorician, also made some attempts against the Christians; but these have perished, with the exception of a bare mention of them by Minutius Felix. To these may be added Crescens, a Cynic was the philosopher, who wrote against Christianity." Macl.] 4 Minutius Felix, Octavius, p. 266, ed. Herald. - [Minucius mentions this calumniator in two passages, namely, chap. 10, p. 99, and chap. 31, p. 322; in the former of which, he calls him Cirtensis noster; implying, that he was of Cirta, in Africa: in the latter passage, he speaks of him as an orator, indicating what profession he followed. It has been supposed by the learned, and not without reason, that this Fronto was Cornelius Fronto, the rhetorician, who instructed Marcus Antoninus in cloquence (and whose works were first published A. D. 1816, by Aug. Mains, Frankf. on Mayn, in 2 parts). So long as the Christian community was made up of unlearned persons, the philoso philosopher, who, though he seems to have written nothing against the Christians, yet was very eager to do them harm; and in particular did not cease to persecute Justin Martyr, till he compassed his death.3 phers despised them. But when, in the second century, some eminent philosophers became Christians, as Justin, Athenagoras, Pantænus, and others, who retained the name, garb, and mode of living of philosophers, and who became teachers of youth, and while they gave a philosophical aspect to Christianity, exposed the vanity of the pagan philosophy, and the shameless lives of those addicted to it; the pagan philosophers, perceiving their reputations and their interests to be at stake, now joined the populace and the priests in persecuting the Christians in general; and they especially assailed the Christian philosophers, with their calumnies and accusations. Their chief motive was not the love of truth, but their own reputation, influence, glory, worldly interest and advantage; just the same causes as had before moved the pagan priests. This war of the philosophers commenced in the reign of Marcus Antoninus, who was himself addicted to philosophy. And it is easy to see what induced him to listen to his brother philosophers, and, at their instigation, to allow the Christians to be persecuted. See Mosheim, de Rebb. Christ. &c. p. 256, &c. Tr.] 5 Justin Martyr, Apologia, ii. p. 21, ed. Oxon. Tatian, Orat. contra Græcos, p. 72, ed. Worthii. PART II. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE STATE OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. -- § 1. State of learning in general.-§ 2, 3. Learned men. -§ 4. Rise of the new Platonics.§ 5. Eclectics at Alexandria.—§ 6. Approved by the Christians.— § 7. Ammonius Saccas.—§ 8. His fundamental principles. — § 9. His principal doctrines.-§ 10. His austere system of moral discipline. -§ 11. His opinions concerning God and Christ. — § 12. Ill effects of this philosophy on Christianity. -§ 13. The state of learning among Christians. § 1. LITERATURE, although it seemed in some measure to recover its former dignity and lustre during the reign of Trajan', could not long retain its influence under the subsequent emperors, who were indisposed to patronize it. The most learned among these Roman sovereigns, Marcus Antoninus, showed favour only to the philosophers, and especially to the Stoics; the other arts and sciences he, like the Stoics, held in contempt.2 Hence the literary productions of this age, among the Romans, are far inferior to those of the preceding century, in elegance, brilliance, and good taste. § 2. Yet there were men of excellent genius, among both Greeks and Romans, who wrote well on almost every branch of learning then cultivated. Among the Greeks, Plutarch was particularly eminent. He was a man of various but illdigested learning; and besides was tainted with the principles of the academics. Rhetoricians, logicians, and grammarians had schools in all the more considerable towns of the Roman Pliny, Epistolar. lib. iii. Ep. 18, p. 234, 235, ed. Cortii et Longolii. 2 M. Antoninus, Meditations, or Ad se ipsum, lib i. § 7, p. 3, 4, § 17, p. 17, ed. Lips. empire: in which they pretended to train up youth for public life, by various exercises and declamations. But those edu cated in these schools were vain, loquacious, and formed for display, rather than truly eloquent, wise, and competent to transact business. Hence the sober and considerate looked with contempt on the education acquired under these teachers. There were two public academies; one at Rome, founded by Adrian, in which all branches of learning were taught, but especially jurisprudence; the other at Berytus, in Phoenicia, in which jurists were principally educated.3 5 There § 3. Many philosophers, of all the different sects, flourished at this time; but to enumerate them belongs rather to other works than to this.4 The Stoic sect had the honour of embracing two great men, Marcus Antoninus, the emperor, and Epictetus. But each of these had more admirers than disciples and followers; nor do the Stoics appear from books to have stood very high among philosophers in this age. were larger numbers in the schools of the Platonists; among other reasons, because they were less austere, and their doctrines accorded better with the prevailing opinions of the gods. But no sect appears to have numbered more adherents than the Epicureans; whose precepts led to an indulgent, careless, and voluptuous life." § 4. Near the close of this century a new philosophic body suddenly started up, which in a short time prevailed over a large part of the Roman empire, and not only nearly swallowed up the other sects, but likewise did immense injury to Christianity. Egypt was its birth-place, and particularly Alexandria, which for a long time had been the seat of literature and every science. science. Its followers chose to be called Platonics. Yet they did not follow Plato implicitly, but collected from all systems whatever seemed to coincide with their own views. 3 M. Antoninus, Meditations, or, Ad se ipsum, lib. i. § 7. 10. 17, p. 4. 7. 16, ed. Lips. Justin Martyr, Dial. cum Trypho. Opp. p. 218, &c. Many of the philosophers of this age are mentioned by M. Antoninus, Meditat. or, Ad se ipsum, lib. i. 5 [Concerning M. Antoninus, see Brucker's Hist. Crit. Philos. tom. ii. p. 578, and for Epictetus, ibid. p. 568. Schl.-Staeudlin, Gesch. der Moral Phi los. p. 265, &c. treats of M. Antoninus; and ibid. p. 260, &c. of Epictetus. Tr.] Lucian, Pseudomantis; Opp. tom. i. p. 763. 7 [See Dr. Mosheim's Commentat. de turbata per recentiores Platonicos ecclesia, in his Syntagma Diss. ad Hist. Eccles. pertinent. vol. i. p. 85, &c.; and Brucker's Hist. Crit. Philos. tom. ii. p. 162, &c. Schl. -And, on the contrary, C. A. T. Keil, Exercitatt.xviii, de Doctoribus veteris eccles. And the ground of this preference for the name of Platonics was, that they conceived Plato to have understood more correctly than any one besides, that most important branch of philosophy, which treats of God, and things remote from sensible apprehension. § 5. That controversial spirit in philosophy, which exacted from disciples implicit acquiescence in the decisions of a single master, was now disapproved by the more wise. Hence among lovers of truth, and men of moderation, a new class of philosophers had grown up in Egypt, who avoided altercation and a sectarian spirit, and who professed simply to follow the truth, gathering up whatever was accordant with it, in all the philosophic schools. They assumed therefore the name of Eclectics. But, notwithstanding these philosophers were really the partisans of no sect, yet it appears, from a variety of testimonies, that they much preferred Plato, and embraced most of his dogmas concerning God, the human soul, and the universe.8 § 6. This philosophy was adopted by such of the learned at Alexandria, as wished to be accounted Christians, and yet to retain the name, the garb, and the rank of philosophers. In particular, all those who in this century presided in the schools of the Christians at Alexandria, Athenagoras, Pantanus, and Clemens Alexandrinus, are said to have approved of it." These men were persuaded that true philosophy, the great and most salutary gift of God, lay in scattered fragments among all the sects of philosophers; and therefore, that it was the duty of every wise man, and especially of a Christian teacher, to collect those fragments from all quarters, and to use them for the defence of religion and the confutation of impiety. Yet this selection of opinions did not prevent them from regarding culpâ corrupta per Platonicas sententias theologia, liberandis, Lips. 1793-1807, 4to. Tr.] [See Brucker's Hist. Crit. Philos. tom. ii. p. 189, &c. Schl.] The title and dignity of philosopher so much delighted those good men, that, when made presbyters, they would not abandon the philosopher's cloak and dress. See Origen's letter to Eusebius, Opp. tom. i. p. 2, ed. de la Rue. [Justin Martyr, Dial. cum Trypho. initium. For proof that Pantænus studied philosophy, see Origen, in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. 1. vi. c. 19. Jerome, de Scriptoribus Il - lustr. cap. 20. The proficiency of Athenagoras in philosophy appears from his Apology, and his Essay on the Resurrection. That Clemens Alex. was much addicted to philosophy, is very evident; see his Stromata, passim. Concerning the Alexandrian Christian school, see Herm. Conringius, Antiquitates Academicæ, p. 29. J. A. Schmidt, Diss. prefixed to A. Hyperii Libellus de Catechesi : Domin. Aulisius, delle Scuole Sacre, lib. ii. cap. 1, 2. 21. Geo. Langemäck, Historia Catechismorum, pt. i. p. 86. - See Mosheim, de Rebus Christ. &c. p. 273, &c. Tr.] |