himself betrayed his weakness by his amours. Mars and Venus were wounded by Diomede, &c. Thales derived all things from water; Anaximenes, from air; Heraclitus, from fire, &c. But it is not possible for the human mind to search out divine things; it needs aid from above; it must be moved by the divine Spirit, as the lyre must by the plectrum. This was the fact with the Hebrew prophets; who, besides, were much older than the Grecian poets, lawgivers, and philosophers. Even the heathen writers admit the high antiquity of the Jewish legislation, e.g. Polemon, Appion, Ptolemy Mendesius, Hellanicus, &c.; and Philo, Josephus, and Diodorus Siculus confirm it. An Egyptian king, Ptolemy (Philadelphus), therefore, caused the ancient Hebrew books to be translated into Greek, by 70 men, who were inclosed in as many separate cells when they had finished their translations, they were found perfectly agreeing, not only in the sense but in the words. Justin himself had seen the vestiges of these cells. The Greeks derived their best thoughts from the Hebrews. Thus, Orpheus, Homer, Solon, Pythagoras, and Plato, are known to have acquired their best knowledge in Egypt. Hence, Orpheus, the Sibyls, Homer, Sophocles, &c. were enabled to write about the unity of God; the judgment after death, &c. When Plato, for instance, says: Virtue must be given to men by the Deity; he borrowed the idea from the prophets; and to conceal the fact, he substituted virtue in place of the Holy Spirit. When he says: Time began with heaven; it is clear, that he borrowed from Moses' writings, &c. Since, therefore, the Grecian philosophers themselves confess their ignorance, and the Sibyls direct to the coming of Christ, men should go to the prophets, as to the source of all truth."-The shorter work, entitled, Oratio ad Græcos, is similar in its contents. Indeed, this may serve as a fair specimen of the ground taken by the Christian fathers generally, in their controversies with learned pagans. About A. D. 150, or, as some think, 10 or 12 years earlier, Justin presented his earliest or long Apology for the Christians to the emperor Antoninus Pius: and a little before his death, or after A. D. 160, his other Apology, an

imperfect copy of which is improperly called his first Apology. The substance of the larger Apology, which is written with little method, is this: "Why are Christians condemned merely for their name, without inquiry whether they are malefactors? Let this be investigated; then punish the guilty, and let the innocent go free. The Christians are accused of atheism; but unjustly. They worship God the Father, the Son, and the prophetic or divine Spirit. They offer indeed no sacrifices: but they believe God requires none. Christians are ridiculed for expecting a kingdom of Christ; but unjustly. The kingdom which they expect, is not an earthly kingdom; if it were, how could they so cheerfully meet death? Christianity is not so totally unlike every thing believed by the pagans. The pagans expect a judgment after death; so do the Christians. The former make Rhadamanthus the judge; the latter Jesus Christ. The pagans believe, that many men were sons of Jupiter; Christians believe, that Jesus was the Son of God. The pagans assert, that Esculapius healed the sick in a wonderful manner; Christians assert the same of Christ, &c. The ground of this correspondence lies in this, that the demons, who were the authors of the pagan religion, and to whom the pagan worship is paid, copied beforehand the history of Christ, in order to prejudice the truth. Yet they omitted to copy the cross, which is the appropriate sign of the power of Christ; (and therefore it is found indispensable in nature, e.g. in the yards of a ship.) Also, by the ascent of Simon Magus to heaven, they sought to imitate the ascension of Christ and since the Romans themselves have erected a statue to this Simon as a god, they should more readily do the same to Christ. Christianity is true. This is demonstrable from the prophecies of the Old Testament. (Here again, the antiquity of the Old Testament is asserted; and the principle maintained, that the Greeks borrowed from the Hebrews.) Also, the prophecies of Christ, concerning his ascension to heaven, and the destruction of Jerusalem, which have been fulfilled, prove the truth of Christianity. Christ is the Logos, (the reason or intelligence,) of which all men participate; so that every one

who has ever lived according to Logos, (reason,) was a Christian. The demons, whose worship is prostrated by Christianity, are the authors of the persecutions against Christians."-Some points in this Apology are here omitted, because contained in the other summaries.

The shorter Apology commences with an account of some persecutions; which are ascribed to the malice of the demons. It then gives reasons why Christians do not shun martyrdom: and also, why God permits persecution. "God entrusted the government of the world to angels: these afterwards apostatized from God, and taking human wives, begat the demons; and by them and their offspring, the human race is now oppressed and ruined. God would, before this, have destroyed the world, had he not spared it for the sake of the Christians. Yet it is to be destroyed hereafter, and by fire." "Jesus Christ is superior to Socrates; for no one ever died for the doctrine of the latter. The constancy of Christians under persecution is evidence of their innocence." These summaries of Justin's Apologies are specimens of the ground taken by all the ancient Apologists, whose works have come down to

us.

Besides the four works now mentioned, Justin wrote a book, de Monarchia Dei, proving the divine unity, in opposition to polytheism, by testimonies from the Old Testament, and likewise from pagan writers. The latter part of the book is preserved.-Against the Jews he composed, in the latter part of his life, his Dialogus cum Tryphone Judæo. He defends Christianity against the Jews, chiefly by arguments from the ancient prophecies and types of Christ in the Old Testament. He also wrote a book against Marcion, and another against all the heresies; both of which are unfortunately lost. So are his book concerning the Soul, (in which he collected the opinions of the philosophers on that subject,) and his book entitled, Psaltes. There are several other works now extant, under his name, which are either doubted or denied to be his : namely, an Epistle to Diognetus, and another to Zenas and Serenus; 146 Questions and their solutions to the Orthodor; Exposition of the true Faith (on the Trinity); Metaphysical Questions (Quas

tiones Græcanica) and answers; Questions to the Greeks, and their answers refuted; a confutation of some Aristotelian doctrines, &c. Justin's works make a considerable folio volume. They were well edited, Paris, 1636, reprinted, Cologne, 1686: but still better in the Benedictine ed. by Prudent. Maran, Paris, 1742. Thirlby's ed. of the Dialogue, London, 1722, fol., is good. The two Apologies, with those of Tertullian and Minutius Felix, are given in English by W. Reeve, London, 1707, 2 vols. 8vo. Tr. - English readers who wish to form an opinion of this father, should read Some Account of the Writings and Opinions of Justin Martyr, by Bishop Kaye. Nor should this work be overlooked by the scholar. Ed.]

5 [Irenæus, who was active during the last half of this century, was born and educated in Asia Minor, under Polycarp and Papias. About A. D. 150, Pothinus and others went from Asia Minor to Lyons and Vienne in France; and Irenæus, then a young man, is supposed to have been one of those missionaries. He remained a presbyter till the death of Pothinus, A. D. 177, when he succeeded him in the episcopal chair at Lyons, which he filled till about A. D. 202, the time of his martyrdom. While a presbyter he was sent to Rome, by his church, concerning the affair of Montanus. He is supposed to have composed the letter written in the name of the churches of Lyons and Vienne, giving the graphic account of their persecution in A.D. 177. He likewise took an active part in the controversy respecting Easter, A.D. 196; and wrote to Victor, bishop of Rome, on the subject; and also to the presbyter Blastus, who was deposed at Rome during that contest. Eusebius has also preserved part of a letter of his to Florinus, an apostate to Gnosticism, with whom Irenæus had been intimate in his youth. Some other small works of his are mentioned by the ancients. See Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 1. v. c. 15. 20. 24. 26. Jerome, de Scriptor. Illustr. cap. 35. -But the great work of Irenæus, is his examination and confutation of the misnamed (yvois) knowledge in five books, commonly called Libri contra Hareses. The work is altogether polemic, and is directed particularly against Valentinus, yet so as to be a confutation of all the

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Gnostics, and a defence of the catholic faith against most of the heretics of that age. The book contains much information respecting the early heretics, their origin, sentiments, and characters; also respecting the state of theological science in that age, the doctrines generally received and taught, and the manner of stating and defending them. But unfortunately, the original Greek is lost, except the extracts preserved by Eusebius, Epiphanius, and others; and the Latin translation, which is very ancient, is extremely barbarous, and sometimes scarcely intelligible. - Irenæus was an ardent and sincere Christian, and a discreet and amiable man.

He pos

As

sessed considerable learning and influence; but his mind does not appear to have been one of the highest order. an interpreter of Scripture, like all the early fathers, he was too fond of tracing allegories; and as a theologian, few of the moderns will account him entirely correct in principle, or perfectly conclusive in his reasonings. See, concerning his life and writings, Cave, Du Pin, Massuet, (works of Irenæus,) the Acta Sanctor. tom. v. June, p. 335. Histoire littéraire de la France, tom. i. p. 51, and Milner, Hist. of the Ch. century iii, ch. i. vol. i. p. 215, ed. Bost. 1822.-The best editions of his works are by Grabe, Lond. 1702, fol., and the Benedictine by Massuet, Paris, 1710, and Venice, 1734, 2 tom. fol. Tr.-Upon this father and his work full information will be found, in An Account of the Life and Writings of S. Irenæus, by J. Beaven, Lond. 1841. Ed.]

6

[Athenagoras, one of the most elegant and able writers the church has produced, is scarcely mentioned by any of the fathers. Methodius, about A. D. 285, quoted from him (see Epiphan. Hæres. 65); Philip Sidetes, about A.D. 400, gives some lame account of him (in Dodwell's Diss. on Irenæus, p. 408); and Photius (Bibliotheca), in the ninth century, speaks of him. This is all the fathers tell us. It appears from the title of his Apology, that he was a Christian philosopher of Athens; and that he wrote his Apology in the reign of the emperors Marcus and Commodus.-Phi

lip Sidetes, who is a writer of little credit, says, that he presided in the school at Alexandria, before Pantænus; which is contradicted by Eusebius; and that he was converted to Christianity by reading the Scriptures with a design to confute them, which may be true. Dr. Mosheim, in his Diss. de vera ætate Apologetici Athenag. (Dissertt. ad Hist. Eccles. vol. i. p. 269, &c.) has proved, that the Apology was written A. D. 177, the very year of the persecutions at Lyons and Vienne. Athenagoras descants on the same topics as Justin Martyr, and employs the same arguments; but his composition is immensely superior as to style and method. His other work, de Resurrectione, is written with equal elegance, and contains the arguments used in that age, to support the doctrine of the resurrection of the body against the objections of philosophers. His works, besides being printed separately by Edw. Dechair, Oxford, 1706, 8vo, are commonly subjoined to those of Justin Martyr; and the best editions are those of Grabe, Lond. 1802, and Massuet, Paris, 1710. Tr.]

7

[Theophilus was made bishop of Antioch in Syria, A.D. 168, and died about A. D. 182 or 183. The best accounts of him, by the ancients, are those of Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. 1. iv. c. 20, 23, and Jerome, de Scriptor. Illustr. c. 25. He appears to have been a converted pagan, a man of reading, a decided and active Christian pastor, sound in faith, and zealous for the truth. He is not metaphysical, but still is rather a dry and argumentative writer. He composed a book against Hermogenes; and another against Marcion; and a Commentary on the four Gospels: all of which are lost. His great work, and the only one which has reached us, is his three books, addressed to his pagan friend Autolycus, in vindication of Christianity. Here he takes much the same ground with Justin Martyr and the other Apologists: but he descends more into detail, in his proofs from Scripture and from history. He is fond of allegorical and fanciful interpretations, and on them rests a large part of his arguments. For example about the middle of the second book he makes (v àpx?)

in the beginning, Gen. i. 1, to mean, by Christ. The constitution by which vegetables spring up from seeds and roots, was designed to teach the resurrection of our bodies. The dry lands surrounded by seas, denote the church surrounded by enemies. The sun is a type of God; as the moon is of man, that frail changeable creature. The three days preceding the creation of the sun and moon, (TÚTOι eloìv Tpiádos TOû Oεoû,) are typical of the Trinity of God, and his Word, and his Wisdom. (This is said to be the earliest occurrence of the word Trinity in the writings of the fathers.) The fixed stars, among which the sun moves, indicate righteous and holy men who serve God; and the planets denote heretics and apostates, &c. &c. Yet the work is not all of this character. It contains much that is instructive and solid, and is written in a plain, familiar style. Tr.]

8

["Stromata, or Tapestry-work, from the variety of its contents.- Clement's Stromata (A. D. 200) was written with a design of converting the learned heathen." Newman's Arians, 53. 74. Ed.]

9 [Titus Flavius Clemens, whether born at Athens or Alexandria, was a pagan in early life, and devoted himself to philosophy. He travelled in Greece, in south Italy, in Coelo-Syria, in Palestine, and lastly in Egypt, where he was a pupil of Pantænus, the master of the Christian school at Alexandria. Becoming a Christian, he was made a presbyter of the Alexandrian church, and succeeded his preceptor Pantanus, as master of the catechetic or divinity school. He taught with great applause during the reign of Severus, (A. D. 193-211,) and had Origen and other eminent men of the third century for pupils. About A. D. 202, he retired into Palestine and Syria, for a short time, to avoid persecution. He is supposed to have died about A. D. 220.—Clement had vast learning, a lively imagination, great

fluency, considerable discrimination, and was a bold and independent speculator. That he had true piety, and held the essential truths of the Gospel, is admitted by all; but no one of the fathers, except Origen, has been more censured, in modern times, for an excessive attachment to philosophy or metaphysical theology. He was a true Eclectic, which he also professed to be; that is, he followed no master implicitly, but examined and judged for himself. Yet his education and the atmosphere in which he lived, led him to lean towards Platonism and Stoicism. His great error was, that he overrated the value of philosophy, or human reason, as a guide in matters of religion. He also indulged his imagination, as all the learned of this age did, to excess; and construed the Bible allegorically and fancifully.-His three principal works, which have reached us, constitute one whole. His Exhortatio ad Græcos was intended to convince and convert pagans. It exposes the nakedness of polytheism, and demonstrates the truth and excellence of Christianity. His Pædagogus, in three books, was intended to instruct a young convert in the practice of Christianity. It is an indifferent performance, dwells much on trivial rules of conduct, and does not go to the bottom even of external morality. His Stromata, in eight books, (the last of which is not the genuine eighth book,) are written without method, or in a most discursive manner. In them Clement attempts to give the world his most profound thoughts and speculations on theology and the kindred sciences. - He has also left us a practical treatise, entitled, Quis dives ille sit, qui salvetur? in which his object is to show to what temptations and dangers the rich are exposed. There are ascribed to him, and printed with his works, extracts from the writings of Theodotus and the oriental philosophy (the contents of some one's note book respecting the Gnostics), and

selections from the prophets (of no great value), which may be taken from the loose papers of Clement, yet are dubious.

- Eusebius and Jerome mention works of his, which are now lost. Of these the principal are, Libri VIII. Hypotyposeon, a compendious exposition of the Old and New Testament. The others were tracts; de Paschate, de Jejunio, de Obtrectatione, Exhortatio ad Patientiam, and Canon Ecclesiasticus, or de Canonibus Ecclesiasticis.

- The character and writings of Clement have been elaborately investigated by various persons, among whom are N. le Nourry (Apparat. ad Biblioth. Patr.), J. G. Walch (Miscellanea Sacra), J. Brucker (Hist. Crit. Philos.), and A. Neander, Kirchengesch, vol. i.—The best edition of his works is that of Potter, Oxon. 1715, fol. Tr. The present Bishop of Lincoln (Kaye) has rendered ample information upon this Father, universally accessible, in Some Account of the Writings and Opinions of Clement of Alexandria. Ed.]

1 Those who wish further information concerning these writers, their defects and their works, are directed, and the direction is given once for all, -to consult those authors who treat professedly of the Ecclesiastical Writers; namely, J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Græca and Biblioth. Latina. W. Cave, Historia Litteraria Scriptor. Eccles. L. Ellies du Pin and Remigius Cellier, in their Bibliothecas of Ecclesiastical Writers in French, and others.

[Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus was the son of a pagan centurion of proconsular rank, and born at Carthage about A. D. 160. He was bred to the law; but becoming a Christian, was made a presbyter in the church of Carthage, where he appears to have spent

his whole life. About A. D. 200, he embraced the sentiments of the Montanists, which he afterwards defended with his usual ardour. He is said to have lived to a great age; and yet he is supposed to have died about A. D. 220.— Jerome, de Scriptor. Illustr. c. 53. Eusebius, Chronicon, ann. 16 Severi, and others, give him a high character. Jerome

tells us, that Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, was accustomed to read some portions of his works daily; and in calling for this author, used to say, Da magistrum, bring my master. He wrote with great force, and displayed much both of erudition and acuteness; but his style is concise, harsh, and extremely difficult for modern readers. His diction and his spirit, too, it has been supposed, were extensively propagated in the Latin church. — His works consist of about 30 short treatises, and are nearly all of a polemic cast, argumentative, vituperative, and severe. They may be divided into three classes; namely, apologetic, or, in controversy with Pagans and Jews;-doctrinal, or confutations of heretics;-and moral, in defence or confutation of certain practices or rules of conduct.-Of the first class, are his Apologeticum, and Ad Nationes Libri II. These are only different editions of the same work, and were composed about A. D. 198: de Testimonio Anima; the testimony of conscience or common sense to the truths maintained by Christians: ad Scapulam, a pagan magistrate; an expostulation with him (A. D. 211): adversos Judæos; proving from the old Testament that Jesus was the Messiah, and Christianity true.In all these, he takes the same ground with Justin Martyr and the other apologists of that age.- Of the second or doctrinal class, are, de Baptismo; against