employed in preaching, composing tracts, and directing the ecclesiastical affairs, not only of Carthage and Africa, but also of other countries. In the year 257, the persecution under Valerian broke out, and Cyprian was banished to Curubis. The persecution was severe in Africa: many were imprisoned, condemned to the mines, or put to death. Cyprian gave what aid he could to his suffering brethren. The next year, A. D. 258, he was recalled from banishment, summoned before the new governor, Maximus, and condemned to be beheaded. Cyprian lived but 12 years after he embraced Christianity; and during 10 of these he was incessantly engaged in active duties. It was impossible, therefore, that he should become a very learned theologian. Though a man of genius, he was not a metaphysician or philosopher, and seems not to have been formed for abstruse speculations. He was an orator and a man of business, rather than a profound scholar. The practical part of Christianity, and the order and discipline of the church, most engaged his attention. Naturally ardent, and poring daily over the writings of Tertullian, he imbibed very much the spirit and the principles of that gloomy Montanist and having high ideas of episcopal power, and great intrepidity of character, he was an energetic prelate, and a severe disciplinarian.-The best original sources for the history of this distinguished man, are his own numerous letters and tracts, and the Passio S. Cypriani, or account of his martyrdom, written by Pontius one of his deacons. He is very honourably mentioned by many of the fathers; and Gregory Naz. wrote a professed eulogy of him. The moderns also, especially the Roman Catholics and the English Episcopalians, have written elaborately concerning his history, his works, and his opinions. See Bp. Pearson's Annales Cyprianici, and H. Dodwell's Dissertationes Cyprianicæ, in the Oxford edition of Cyprian's works, 1682; Tillemont, Mémoires à l'Histoire Ecclés. tom. iv. p. 19, &c., and Notes sur S. Cyprien, p. 10, &c. Prud. Maran,

Vita S. Cypriani, prefixed to Opp. Cypr. ed. Paris, 1726, p. 38-134; and J. Milner's Church Hist. cent. iii, ch. 7—15.His works consist of 81 Epistles, and 41 Treatises, which are accounted genuine. They are nearly all practical,―hortatory, controversial, and official or friendly letters. His style is neither perspicuous nor chaste, but ardent and animated. He and Lactantius, it has been said, were the fathers of ecclesiastical Latinity. The earlier editions of his works, by Erasmus and others, arranged his letters in books, without regard to their dates or subjects. The edition of Pamelius, 1566, republished by Rigaltius, 1664, attempted to arrange them in chronological order. The Oxford edition by Bp. Fell, 1682, fol. perfected this arrangement. The edition prepared by Baluze, and published by Prudentius Maran, Paris, 1726, fol. retains the order of Pamelius. The two last are the best editions. Tr.]

[Minucius Felix was a respectable Christian barrister at Rome, and is supposed to have been contemporary with Tertullian, and to have flourished about the year 220. He is mentioned by Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 58, and by Lactantius, Institut. Divinar. 1. i. c. 11, and 1. v. c. 1. Little is known of his history. His elegant Dialogue between Cæcilius a pagan and Octavius a Christian, recounts the principal arguments urged for and against Christianity at that time, in a clear, concise, and forcible manner. The Latinity is pure and elegant. Jerome informs us that another tract, de Fato vel contra Mathematicos, was ascribed to him; but from its style, it was probably not his. This tract is now lost. In the middle ages, the Octavius of Minucius was mistaken for the 8th Book (Liber Octavus) of Arnobius: and it was so published in the earlier editions. It has been often republished. The best editions, cum notis variorum, are those of Gronovius, Leyden, 1709, 8vo.; and of Davis, Cambridge, 1707 and 1711, 8vo. The Germans are fond of the edition of Cellarius, 1698, 8vo, republished by Linder, 1760,

and by Ernesti, 1773, 8vo.- It has been translated into French, Dutch, and English; the last, by Reeves, among his Apologies in Defence of the Christian religion, vol. ii. Lond. 1709, 8vo. Tr.]

[Arnobius, senior, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca, in Africa, during the reign of Diocletian. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 79. He was at first an open adversary of the Christian religion, but at length, being fully convinced of its truth, he undertook to defend it in a learned and elaborate work. But, either his knowledge of Christianity was then very limited, or he had studied the Scriptures only in private, and without seeking instruction from the Christian teachers, for he entertained many singular opinions. Jerome reports, (Chron. ad ann. xx. Constantini,) that when Arnobius applied to the bishop for baptism, the latter refused him, from doubts of the sincerity of his conversion; and that Arnobius wrote his book to satisfy the mind of the bishop. This account is called in question by some. See Lardner, Credibility, &c. pt. ii. vol. iv. p. 7, and Neander, Kirchengesch. vol. i. p. 1161, &c. He probably wrote in the beginning of the 4th century, and died perhaps about A. D. 326.- -The best early editions of his work, are those printed at Leyden, 1651 and 1657, 4to. The latest edition is that of Orell, Lips. 1816. 8vo, in 2 parts, with an Appendix, 1817. 8vo. Tr.]

[The following notices of other leading men in this century, may be interesting to the literary reader.

Caius, a learned ecclesiastic of Rome, in the beginning of this century, is mentioned by Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 59, and is quoted repeatedly by Eusebius. In his work against Proculus the Montanist, he assailed the Chiliasts, and ascribed but 13 epistles to St. Paul. Euseb. H. E. ii. 25, iii. 28, and vi. 20.

He has been supposed by some, to be the author of the book against Artemon, quoted by Euseb. H. E. v. 28.

Just before A. D. 200, Theophilus, bp. of Antioch, Bacchylus, bp. of Cæsarea, in Palestine, and Polycrates, bp. of Ephesus, called councils on the controversy respecting Easter-day, and composed synodic Epistles. See Jerome, de Viris. Illustr. c. 43-45, and Euseb. H. E. v. 23 and 25. From the epistle of Polycrates, valuable extracts are made by Jerome, 1. c. and Euseb. H. E. iii. 31, and v. 24.

At the commencement of this century, lived Heraclitus, Maximus, Candidus, Appion, Sextus, and Arabianus, who were distinguished as writers, according to Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 46-51, and Euseb. H. E. v. 27.-Heraclitus commented on Paul's Epistles; Maximus wrote concerning the origin of evil (περὶ τῆς ὕλης, from which we have a considerable extract, in Euseb. Præpar. Evang. vi. 22). Candidus and Appion explained the Hexaëmeron, or six days' work, Gen. ch. i.; Sextus wrote on the resurrection; and Arabianus composed some doctrinal tracts.

Judas, of the same age, undertook a computation of the 70 weeks of Daniel; and brought down his history of events to A.D. 203. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 52, and Euseb. H. E. vi. 7.

Ammonius was probably an Egyptian Christian, nearly contemporary with Origen; and not the apostate philosopher Ammonius Saccas, under whom Origen studied, though confounded with him by Euseb. H. E. vi. 19, and by Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 55. See Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr. iv. p. 161 and 172, and Mosheim, de Rebus Christianor. p. 281, &c. He wrote a book on the agreement of Moses with Jesus, which is lost, and a Harmony of the four Gospels, which is supposed to be one of those still extant

in the Biblioth. Max. Patrum. But whether the larger Harmony, in tom. ii. pt. ii. or the smaller, in tom. iii. is the genuine work, has been doubted. See Lardner, Credibility, &c. pt. ii. vol. ii. p. 106, &c.

Tryphon, a disciple of Origen, is said by Jerome (de Viris Illustr. c. 57,) to have been very learned in the Scriptures, and to have written many epistles and tracts, and particularly a treatise concerning the red heifer, in the book of Num. ch. xix.; and another on the dividing of the birds in Abraham's sacrifice, Gen. xv. 10. Nothing of his is extant.

Symmachus, originally a Samaritan, then a Jew, and at last an Ebionite Christian, gave a free translation of the O. T. into Greek; and also defended the principles of the Ebionites, in a Commentary on Matthew's Gospel. See Euseb. H. E. vi. 17.

Narcissus was made bp. of Jerusalem A. D. 196. After four years of faithful service, he was falsely accused of immoral conduct; and, though generally accounted innocent, he voluntarily abdicated his office, and lived in retirement till A. D. 216, when he resumed his office, and continued in it till his martyrdom, A. D. 237. He was then 116 years old. See Euseb. H. E. vi. c. 9, 10, 11.

Alexander succeeded Narcissus A.D. 237, and held the chair 14 years. This eminent man was bishop of a church in Cappadocia, when called to the see of Jerusalem. He was a great patron of Origen; and wrote several epistles, from which extracts are preserved. After important services to the church, he died a martyr, A. D. 251. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 62, and Euseb. H. E. vi. 11. 14. 19. 26. 39, and 46.

Firmilian, bp. of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, was a great admirer and a disciple of Origen. He was a man of high eminence in the church, and died at Tarsus, on his way to the second council of Antioch against Paul of Samosata, about A. D. 266. A long and able epistle of his to Cyprian, on the rebaptism of heretics, is preserved in a Latin translation among the works of Cyprian, Ep. 75. See Euseb. H. E. vi. 26, 27. 46; and vii. 5. 29.

Pontius, a deacon of Carthage, attended Cyprian at his death, and wrote an account of his martyrdom, which has reached us, though perhaps inter

polated. It is prefixed to Cyprian's works, and is found in Ruinart, Acta Selecta Martyrum. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 68. Pontius himself, it is said, suffered martyrdom shortly after; of which an account is extant, professedly written by his fellow-deacon Valerius; apud Baluzii Miscell. t. ii. p. 124.

Cornelius, bp. of Rome, was elected June 2, A. D. 251, in opposition to Novatian; and, after fifteen months, died in banishment at Centumcellæ, (CivitáVecchia,) Sept. 14, A.D. 252. In the works of Cyprian, there are extant two epistles of Cornelius to Cyprian, and ten epistles of Cyprian to Cornelius. Cyprian describes him (Ep. 52, ed. Baluz.) as an unimpeachable character, -a pious, sensible, modest man,- - well qualified to be a bishop. Jerome (de Viris Illustr. c. 66,) mentions four epistles of Cornelius to Fabius, bp. of Antioch; and Eusebius gives us a long and valuable extract from one of them. H. E.

vi. 43. See Bower's Lives of the Popes,

vol. i.

Novatian, first a presbyter, and then the schismatical bp. of Rome, wrote, (according to Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 70,) de Pascha; de Sabbatho; de Circumcisione; de Sacerdote; de Oratione; de Cibis Judaicis (extant, inter Opp. Tertulliani); de Instantia; de Attalo; de Trinitate (a large book, being an abridgment of a work of Tertullian, extant, inter Opp. Tertull.); and many other works. An epistle written by him to Cyprian, in the name of the Roman clergy, A.D. 250, is likewise extant (inter Opp. Cypriani, ep. 31, ed. Baluz.), and shows that he was a man of talents, and a good writer. His rival, Cornelius, describes him as a very bad man. See Euseb. H. E. vii. 43.

Stephen, bp. of Rome, A. D. 253-257, is chiefly famous for his presumptuous attempt to excommunicate Cyprian and many other bishops of Africa and the East, for rebaptizing converted heretics. See Euseb. H. E. vii. 2—5. 7. Cyprian, Ep. 70-75. Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. i.

Sixtus II. bp. of Rome, A. D. 257, 258, and a martyr, was more conciliatory than his predecessor. Euseb. vii. 5. 9. Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. i. Various supposititious writings are extant under his name. The most noted is a series of 460 moral Apophthegms, translated by Rufinus. Jerome (on Ezek. c. 18, and elsewhere), and Augustine (Retract. 1. ii.

c. 42), pronounce them the work of Sixtus, a pagan philosopher; which they probably are, notwithstanding U. G. Sieber, their editor, (Lips. 1725, 4to,) has laboured hard to fix them on this Roman bishop.

Dionysius, bp. of Rome, A. D. 259— 269, was a learned man, and a good bishop. See Basil, Ep. 220, and de Sp. Sancto, c. 29. Euseb. H. E. vii. 7. He wrote an epistle against the Sabellians, of which Athanasius (de Synodi Nicænæ decretis) has preserved an extract; also an epistle to Dionysius of Alexandria, acquainting him with the dissatisfaction of a council of bishops at Rome, with some expressions concerning the Trinity used by that patriarch, and requesting of him an explanation, which was given in four Letters or Books. Athanasius, pro Sententia Dionys. Alex., and Euseb. H. E. vii. 26. See Bower's Lives of the Popes, vol. i.

Malchion, a presbyter, and a teacher of philosophy at Antioch. He greatly distinguished himself in the third council, against Paul of Samosata, A. D. 269. Two previous councils had been unable to convict the crafty heretic; but in this, Malchion encountered him in presence of the council, while stenographers took down their dialogue. Paul was now convicted; and the Dialogue was published. Euseb. H. E. vii. 29. Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 71.

Commodianus, a Christian poet, was probably an African and contemporary, or nearly so, with Cyprian. See Dodwell's Diss. de Etate Commodiani. He had a smattering of Greek and Latin learning, but was a weak though wellmeaning man. His book comprises eighty paragraphs, called Instructions. It is written acrostically, and in a loose kind of hexameter: the style is rude, and the matter trite: the first half of the book is directed against the pagans; next he assails the unbelieving Jews; and then attempts to instruct all classes of Christians, and all ranks of ecclesiastical functionaries. It was first published by Rigaltius, subjoined to Cyprian's works, A. D. 1650; and again in 1666. The editions, with notes, by Schurtzfleisch, 1710, and of Davis, subjoined to his Minucius Felix, Camb. 1711, 8vo, are the best.

Anatolius, a very scientific ecclesiastic of Alexandria, who, by his address, once delivered his townsmen from a siege. He was made bp. of Laodicea in Syria, about A. D. 270, and published canons VOL. I.

for ascertaining Easter, from which Eusebius (H. E. vii. 32,) has preserved an extract; and Institutes of arithmetic, in ten books, of which some fragments still remain. Eusebius (1. c.) gives a long account of him. See also Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 73. What remains of his works has been published, Greek and Latin, by Bucherius, in his Doctrina Temporum, Antw. 1634, fol.

Archelaus, bp. of Carrhæ, in Mesopotamia, flourished about A. D. 278. He wrote in Syriac his disputation with Manes the heretic; which was early translated into Greek, and thence into Latin. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 72. A large part of the Latin copy was first published by Valesius, subjoined to Socrates, Historia Eccles. ; afterwards, together with what remains of the Greek, by Zaccagnius, in his Collection of rare Works of the Greek and Latin Church, Rome, 1698, 4to, p. 1102; and lastly, by Fabricius, ad finem Opp. S. Hippolyti, 2 vols. fol.

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Pierius, a presbyter, and perhaps catechist of Alexandria. He was of Origen's school, very learned in the Scriptures, and wrote many discourses and expositions in a neat and simple style. He was called Origen Junior. His long discourse on the prophet Hosea is particularly noticed by Jerome. Photius (Biblioth. cxix.) mentions twelve books of his expositions. He was of an ascetic turn, lived considerably into the fourth century, and spent his latter years at Rome. Nothing of his remains. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 76; and Euseb. H. E. vii. 32.

Theognostus, of Alexandria, a friend of Origen, and perhaps successor to Pierius in the catechetic school. He wrote seven books of Hypotyposes; of which Photius (Biblioth. cvi.) has preserved an abstract. Photius deemed him heretical, in regard to the Trinity; but Athanasius makes quotations from him, in confutation of the Arians. See Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr. vol. ix. p. 408.

Lucian, a learned presbyter of Antioch. He adhered for some time to Paul of Samosata. To him most of the churches from Syria to Constantinople, were indebted for corrected copies of the Septuagint. Jerome mentions him as the author of several theological tracts and letters; and a confession of faith, drawn up by him, is still extant, in Socrates, Hist. Eccles. 1. ii. c. 10, and in Walch's Biblioth. Symbol. Vetus, p. 29, &c. He was a very pious man, and

suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia, A. D. 311. See Euseb. H. E. viii. 13, and ix. 6, and Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 77.

Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop and martyr, was famous at the same period for setting forth correct copies of the Septuagint in Egypt. Whether he was that Hesychius who compiled a useful Greek Lexicon, still extant, is uncertain. He died a martyr, A. D. 311. See Euseb. H. E. viii. 13, and Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr. vol. iv. p. 554, &c.

Pamphilus the martyr, was a native of Berytus, but a presbyter of Cæsarea in Palestine, where he established a school, and collected a theological library, which has been of immense service to the Christian world. This library afforded to Eusebius, Jerome, and many others, the means of becoming learned divines, and of benefiting the world by their writings. To this establishment, ecclesiastical history and biblical learning are peculiarly indebted.-Pamphilus was a pupil of Pierius, an admirer of Origen, and the great friend and patron of Eusebius. He transcribed most of the works of Origen, with his own hand; and he composed a biography and vindication of Origen, in five books, to which Eusebius added a sixth book. Only the

first book is now extant; and that in a Latin translation of Rufinus, printed inter Opp. Origenis. — Pamphilus took great pains to multiply and spread abroad correct copies of the Holy Scriptures. His life was written by Eusebius, in three books, which are lost. He suffered martyrdom, A. D. 309, at Cæsarea in Palestine. See Euseb. de Martyribus Palæstina, c. 10 and 7, and H. E. vi. 32, vii. 32, and viii. 13. Jerome de Viris Illustr. c. 75.

Victorinus, bp. of Petavio in Upper Pannonia, (Petau in Steyermark,) wrote Commentaries on Gen. Exod. Levit. Isa. Ezek. Habak. Eccles. Cant. and the Apocalypse; also a book against all the Heresies. He died a martyr, A. D. 303. Jerome says, he understood Greek better than Latin; and, therefore, his thoughts are good, but his style is bad.Dr. Cave (Histor. Lit. vol. i.) published a fragment of his Commentary on Genesis. Whether the Commentary on the Apocalypse, now extant under his name, be his, has been much doubted; because this comment is opposed to Chiliasm, whereas Jerome (de Viris Illustr. c. 18,) says, that Victorinus favoured the sentiments of Nepos and the Chiliasts. - See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 74. Tr.]