against the orthodox. He wrote commentaries on the Gospels: but nothing of his remains. servants of Vitellius, an African Donatist, who flourished about A. D. 344. He wrote on the world's hatred to the God; against the pagans; against the Catholics as traditors, and some other tracts. See Gennadius, de Viris Illustr. c. 4. Nothing of his remains. Macrobius of Africa. As a catholic presbyter, he wrote a book addressed to confessors and virgins; afterwards, as a Donatist bishop resident at Rome, he composed the martyrdom of Maximianus and Isaac, two Donatists. A large fragment of the last is extant in Mabillon, Analect. tom. iv. He flourished A. D. 344. Liberius, bishop of Rome, A. D. 352366. He had a warm discussion with the emperor Constantius, in the year 355, at Milan, respecting the persecution of the orthodox by the Arians, for his opposition to which he was banished. During his exile he relapsed, signed an Arian creed, and was restored, A. D. 358. His dialogue with the emperor at Milan is extant in Theodoret, Hist. Eccles. 1. ii. c. 16, and sixteen of his epistles are collected in the Acta Concil. tom. ii. col. 743. Eusebius Vercellensis was a native of Sardinia, and first a lector at Rome, then bishop of Vercelli in the north of Italy, and flourished A. D. 354. For his vigorous opposition to the Arian cause, he was banished in 355, first to Scythopolis in Syria, thence to Cappadocia, and afterwards to Thebais in Egypt. Under Julian he regained his liberty, travelled extensively in the eastern provinces, was at several councils, and returning to Italy, died A. D. 371. He translated the commentary on the Psalms by Eusebius Cæsariensis into Latin; but it is lost; and wrote four letters which are still extant. A manuscript of the four Evangelists, according to the old Italic version, written with his own hand, is preserved in the archives of the church of Vercelli, and was published by J. A. Irici, Milan. 1748. Lucifer Caralitanus, a bishop in Sardinia, contemporary with Eusebius Vercellensis, and his companion in exile. He was founder of the sect called Luciferians, who held no communion with Arians, or even with such as had been Arians. Lucifer was a man of violent passions, and bold even to rashness. He addressed two indecorously written books to the emperor Constantius; and wrote likewise, On apostate Princes; On having no intercourse with heretics; On showing no indulgence to offenders against God; That life is to be sacrificed for the Son of God; and a short Epistle to Florentius. These were published, Paris, 1568, 8vo, and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. iv. p. 181; but the best edition is by Joh. Dominic, and Ja. Coleti, Venice, 1778, fol. Hilarius, a native of Sardinia, deacon at Rome, and associated with Eusebius Vercell, and Lucifer Caralite in an embassy to Constantius, and by him sent with them into exile. He became a Luciferian. To him are attributedthough without sufficient proof -- the Questions on the Old and New Testaments, printed among the works of Augustine, vol. iv., and the Commentaries on the Epistles of Paul, published among the works of Ambrose. Phabadius, bishop of Agen, in the south of France, from, at least, 359392. He was famous, in connexion with the three preceding, in the Arian contests in the West. His Book against the Arians is still extant in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. iv. p. 300, ed. Paris, 1589; and by Casp. Barth, Francf. 1623, 8vo. Zeno, bishop of Verona, who flourished about A. D. 390. To him are ascribed ninety sermons on various texts and subjects, which were compiled from Basil, Hilary, and others. They are in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. iii. p. 359. Fabius Marius Victorinus, of African birth, was a distinguished pagan rhetorician at Rome, who became a convert to Christianity about the middle of this century, and died about A. D. 370. While a pagan, he wrote or translated several treatises on philosophy, grammar, and rhetoric; most of which are lost. After his conversion, he wrote on the holy Trinity; against the Arians, four books; to Justin the Manichæan; against the Manichæan principle of two first causes; on the commencement of the day, whether it be at evening, or in the morning; on the generation of the divine Word; against Candidus the Arian; three hymns; on embracing the homoousian faith; a poem on the seven Maccabees; and commentaries on some of Paul's epistles, which were never published. His style is intricate, obscure, and inelegant. Most of what he wrote after his conversion is extant in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. iv. p. 293. See Jerome, de Viris Illustr. c. 101, and the Notes of J. A. Fabricius. Candidus, an Arian, who flourished about A. D. 364. He composed a book on the divine generation, addressed to F. M. Victorinus, which, with the answer of Victorinus, was published by Andr. Rivinus, Gothæ, 1656. Pacianus, bishop of Barcelona in Spain, who flourished about the year 370, and died before A. D. 390. He wrote a book called Cervus, which is lost; also three epistles against the Novatians; an exhortation to penitence; and a tract on baptism, addressed to catechumens; all of which were published, Paris, 1538, 4to; Rome, 1564, fol. Biblioth. Patrum, tom. iv., and still better, in Aguirre, Collectio Max. Concil. Hispan. tom. ii. p. 79, &c. Anicia Falconia Proba, a noble lady of Rome, distinguished for her rank, her piety, and her beneficence. She flourished about A. D. 370. After the death of her husband, she lost most of her property by the incursion of the Goths, and fell into the hands of Alaric, who carried her to Africa, where she died in the first part of the fifth century. Her Cento Virgilianus de rebus Divinis is extant in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. v. p. 1218, and Cologne, 1601, 8vo, and Halle, 1719, 8vo. Faustinus, a presbyter among the Luciferians at Rome, flourished A. D. 384. He wrote a petition to the emperors Valentinian, Theodosius, and Arcadius; to which is prefixed a Confession of faith; and subjoined is the Rescript of Theodosius. He also wrote a book on the Trinity, against the Arians. His works are in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. v. p. 673, and were printed, Oxford, 1678, 8vo. Siricius, bishop of Rome, A. D. 385— 398, is the earliest Roman pontiff whose Decretal Epistles are allowed to be genuine. Five of his Epistles are in the Acta Concilior. tom. ii.; but the 4th, which is addressed to the bishops of Africa, is demonstrably spurious. See Schroeckl, Kirchengesch, vol. viii. p. 122 -129; and Bower, Lives of the Popes, vol. i. p. 233-277. Idacius Clarus was a Spanish bishop; perhaps of Merida, and flourished A. D. He was conspicuous as an opposer of the Priscillianists; suffered banish 385. ment; and wrote an Apologeticum, which is lost; a book against Virimundus, an Arian deacon; Explanation of some difficult passages of Scripture; and other tracts against heresies; all of which are extant in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. v. p. 726. Gaudentius, bishop of Brescia, in northern Italy, (a different person from Gaudentius, a contemporary Donatist bishop of Tamugada in Africa,) was travelling in the Asiatic provinces, when he was elected successor to Philastrius, bishop of Brescia, and was compelled to return and accept the office. He brought with him, from the East, relics of about forty saints; and served the church till A. D. 410, or, as some say, till 427. He wrote fifteen discourses or tracts on various subjects: also, On the unjust steward: On the text, "My Father is greater than I;" and the Life of Philastrius: all published, Petav. 1720, 4to. Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, A. D. 390 -426, was a man of much influence, and wrote, A. D. 419, a circular Epistle on the condemnation of Pelagius and Coelestius; which, with the letter of the emperor Honorius to him, on the same subject, is in Baronius, Annals, A. D. 419, p. 455, and in the Concil. Collect. tom. ii. col. 1609. Tichonius, or Tychonius, flourished A. D. 390. He was a learned, moderate Donatist; and wrote Seven Rules for interpreting Scripture (extant in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. vi. p. 49). Three books on intestine war; Explanation of divers causes; and a Commentary on the Apocalypse. Some have supposed the eighteen Lectures on the Apocalypse, printed among the works of Augustine, to be this Commentary of Tichonius. See Gennadius, de Viris Illustr. c. 18. Augustine, de Doctrina Christiana, 1. iii. c. 30, and Schroeckh, Kirchengesch, vol. xi. p. 374-382. CHAPTER III, HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. § 1. State of theological learning.—§ 2. Increase of superstition. -§ 3. Hence innumerable pious frauds. —§ 4. Interpreters of the sacred volume. — § 5. Mode of explaining the Christian doctrines. -§ 6. Doctrinal writers. —§ 7. State of controversial theology.—§ 8. Disingenuous methods of disputing.—§ 9. The principal disputants. —§ 10. Practical theology.—§ 11. Faults of the moral writers.-§ 12. The number of mystics increased, and their doctrines established.-§ 13, 14. Monkish societies.-§ 15. Different orders of monks.—§ 16. Two pernicious moral doctrines.—§ 17. Lives and morals of Christians.—§ 18. Controversy with Meletians. § 19. The Eustathian troubles.—§ 20. The Luciferians.-§ 21. The Aërian controversy.—§ 22. Jovinianus.—§ 23. Controversies relating to Origen. § 24. Their extension.—§ 25. Controversy respecting his writings. § 1. THAT the elementary principles of the Christian religion were preserved entire and inviolate in most churches is certain; but it is equally certain, that they were very often unskilfully and confusedly explained and defended. This is manifest from the discussions concerning the three persons in the Godhead, among those who approved the decisions of the council of Nice. There is so little clearness and discrimination in these discussions, that they seem to rend the one God into three Gods. Moreover, those idle fictions, which a regard for the Platonic philosophy and for the prevailing opinions of the day had induced most theologians to embrace, even before the times of Constantine, were now in various ways confirmed, extended, and embellished. Hence it is that we see on every side evident traces of excessive veneration for saints in heaven, of belief in a fire to purify souls on leaving the body, of partiality for priestly celibacy, the worship of images and relics, and for many other opinions which, in process of time, almost banished the true religion, or at least very much obscured and corrupted it. § 2. Genuine piety was gradually supplanted by a long train of superstitious observances, which were derived, partly from opinions inconsiderately embraced, partly from a preposterous disposition to adopt profane rites, and combine them with Christian worship, and partly from the natural predilection of mankind generally for a vain sort of ostentation in religion. At first, frequent pilgrimages were undertaken to Palestine, and to the tombs of the martyrs; as if thence men could bear away the radical principles of holiness, and certain hopes of salvation. Next, from Palestine and from places venerated for sanctity, portions of dust or earth were brought, as most efficacious remedies against assaults of evil; and these were bought and sold every where at great prices. Further, the public supplications, by which the pagans were accustomed to appease their gods, were borrowed from them, and were celebrated in many places with great pomp. To the temples, to water consecrated with certain forms, and to likenesses of holy men, the same efficacy was ascribed, and the same privileges assigned, as had been attributed to the pagan temples, statues, and lustrations, before the advent of Christ. Pictures were, indeed, as yet but rare, and statues not in use. It is, however, particularly shameful, but beyond all doubt, that honours paid to the martyrs were gradually assimilated, with no bad intention, unquestionably, yet with great injury to the Christian cause, to the worship which the pagans had in former times paid to their gods. From these specimens, intelligent readers will easily conceive how much injury the church received from the peace and repose procured by Constantine, and from an indiscreet eagerness to allure the populace within her pale. But the 3 1 See Gregory Nyssen, Oratio ad eos qui Hierosolymam adeunt; Opp. tom. iii. p. 568. Hieronymus, Ep. xiii. ad Paulinum, de Institut. Monachi; Opp. tom. i. p. 66. Ja. Godfrey, ad Codicem Theodos. tom. vi. p. 65, &c. Peter Wesseling, Diss. de caussis peregrinat. Hierosolymit. prefixed to the Itinerarium Burdigalense; among the Vetera Romanor. Itineraria, p. 537.-[Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, seems to have been the first who gave the signal for these religious journeys. At least, it is stated by Socrates, Hist. Eccl. 1. i. c. 17, and by Theodoret, H. E. lib. i. c. 18, that she was instructed by a dream to go to Jerusalem, and that she wished to find the grave of Christ; that she actually did find three crosses, with a super scription; that one of them instantly cured a dying woman, and was therefore concluded to be the cross of Christ. She gave a part of it to the city of Jerusalem; and sent the other part to the emperor, who incased it in his own statue, and regarded it as the Palladium of his new city; and that the people used to assemble around this statue with wax candles. See J. Andr. Schmidt, Problem. de Crucis Dominicæ per Helenam Constantini Imp. matrem inventione, Helmst. 1724. Schl.] plan of this work will not admit of long details respecting such discreditable courses. § 3. This ill-advised piety of the people opened a wide door for endless frauds to persons base and bold enough to seek dishonourable gain in the folly and ignorance of others. Rumours were artfully disseminated of prodigies and wonders seen in certain edifices and places (a trick before this time practised by the pagan priests), whereby the infatuated populace were drawn together, and the stupidity and ignorance of those who looked upon every thing new and unusual as a miracle, were often wretchedly imposed upon. Graves of saints and martyrs were supposed to be where they were not 5; the list of saints was enriched with fictitious names, and even robbers were converted into martyrs. Some buried bloodstained bones in retired places, and then gave out that they had been informed in a dream, that the corpse of some friend of God was there interred. Many, especially of the monks, travelled through the different provinces, and not only shamelessly carried on a traffic in fictitious relics, but also deceived the eyes of the multitude by inventing combats with evil spirits. It would require a volume to detail the various impositions which were, for the most part, successfully practised by artful knaves, after genuine piety and religion were compelled to resign their dominion in great measure to superstition. § 4. Many laboured earnestly, few successfully, on the sacred volume. Jerome, a man of great industry, and not unskilful in the languages, made a new Latin translation of the sacred books; which was more lucid and considerably better than any of the numerous old Latin versions. He also took Henry Dodwell's Dissertat. ii. in Irenaum, § 56, p. 196, &c. Jo. Le Clerc, in his Appendix Augustiniana, p. 492. 550. 575. 5 Concilium Carthagin. v. canon. 14, tom. i. Conciliorum, p. 988, ed. Harduin. 6 Sulpitius Severus, de Vita S. Martini, cap. 8. 7 Augustine, Sermo 318, § 1. Opp. tom. v. p. 886, ed. Antwerp. See Ja. Godfrey, ad Codicem Theodos. tom. iii. p. 172. Augustine, de Opere Monachorum, cap. 28, § 36. Opp. tom. v. 9 p. 364. Jerome, Epistola ad Rusticum; Opp. tom. i. p. 45. See Ja. Fran. Buddeus, Isagoge ad Theologiam, tom. ii. p. 1332, &c.-[That there were many Latin versions extant in the fourth century, is very clearly stated by Augustine, de Doctrina Christiana, 1. ii. c. 11. Of these, (as Augustine tells us, loc. cit.) one was called (Itala) the Italic. But it has become usual to apply this designation to every ancient Latin version, which was not amended by Jerome; and this has given occasion to many mistakes. See Mosheim, de |