From the age's ignorance, whoever were of more than ordinary talent, and could write or speak better than men in general, whoever were endued with a certain dexterity in managing affairs of the graver kind, or with an uncommon degree of mastery over the mind and its emotions; these persons were viewed by those around them, not as men, but as gods; or, to speak more correctly, as men divinely inspired and full of the Deity. 8 § 9. The monks, who had formerly lived for themselves, and had not sought any rank among the clergy, gradually became a class distinct from the common laity, and acquired such privileges and opulence, that they could maintain an honourable rank among the pillars of the church. The reputation of this class of persons for piety and sanctity was so great, that very often, when a bishop or presbyter was to be elected, he was chosen from among them; and the erection of edifices in which monks and nuns might conveniently serve God, was carried beyond all bounds. They did not, however, all observe the same way of life; but some followed the rules of Augustine, others those of Basil, others those of Antony, Athanasius, Pachomius, or some one else.2 Yet it must have been Epiphanius, Exposit. Fidei, Opp. tom. i. p. 1094. Joh. Mabillon, Réponse aux Chanoines réguliers, Opp. Posthum. tom. ii. p. 115. Sulpitius Severus, de Vita Martini, c. x. p. 320. Add Dial. i. c. xxi. p. 426. Sulpitius Severus, Dial. i. p. 419. Henry Noris, Historia Pelagiana, lib. ii. c. 3, in Opp. tom. i. p. 273. Histoire Littéraire de la France, tom. ii. p. 35. 2 [A monk was one who professed wholly to renounce this world, with all its cares and pleasures, and to make religion his sole business. The particular manner in which he proposed to employ himself was called his rule. The early monks, of the third century, were all Eremites or hermits; that is, they retired from all human society, and lived in solitude in the deserts and mountains. Such in particular were the Egyptian monks. In the fourth century they became so numerous in Egypt, as to turn their favourite desert into a populous country; and St. Antony, a leading man among them, induced great numbers to adopt his particular rule. St. Pachomius VOL. I. about the same time organized the monks F F the fact, that they were all very negligent and remiss in the observance of their rules, the licentiousness of monks even in this age having become proverbial; and these armies of lazy men, we are told, excited in various places dreadful seditions. From the enactments of councils of this century it clearly appears, that all monks of every sort were under the protection of the bishops in whose dioceses they lived; nor did the patriarchs, as yet, arrogate to themselves any jurisdiction over them.4 § 10. Among the Greek and oriental writers of this century, the most distinguished, perhaps, was Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, very famous for his different controversies and writings. No impartial person will divest him of all praise; yet no good man will excuse his quarrelsome temper, his restless spirit, and his very great transgressions." Next to him must be placed poverty, and obedience, nor of adherence particular times and places. And yet, amidst this great diversity of rules, there was the greatest harmony among all the monks, who constituted in reality but one society and one body, and were distinguished from each other by no peculiarities of dress. Removal also from one monastery to another, and mutual abode with each other, were easy and free; and not only where both monasteries were of Latins, but also where one was of Latins and the other of Greeks." Tr.] Sulpitius Severus, Dial. i. cap. viii. p. 399, &c. See Joh. Launoy, Inquisitio in Chartam Immunitatis B. Germani, in his Opp. tom. iii. pt. ii. p. 3, &c. 38, &c. In the ancient records, posterior to this century, the monks are often called (clerici) clergymen. See Joh. Mabillon, Prafatio ad Sæcul. II. Actor. Sanctor. Ord. Benedicti, p. xiv. And this is evidence, that they now began to be ranked among the clergy, or ministers of the church. 5 The works of Cyril were published by Joh. Aubert, at Paris, 1638, six vols. [in seven parts,] folio.-[St. Cyrillus was nephew to Theophilus, and his successor in the chair of Alexandria, from A. D. 412 to 444. Soon after his election, he persecuted the Novatians ; assumed the direction of political affairs; quarrelled with Orestes, the governor of Egypt; and is said to have occasioned several insurrections and much bloodshed at Alexandria; to have Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus, an eloquent, copious, and learned writer, whose merits in every branch of theological learning are by no means contemptible, notwithstanding that he appears to have imbibed some part of the Nestorian doctrine. From Isidore instigated the murder of Hypatia, an eminent female philosopher; and to have pulled down the Jews' synagogue, plundered it, and chased the Jews from the city. See Socrates, Hist. Eccles. 1. vii. c. 7. 13, 14, 15, and Damasius, in Suidas, Lex. voce 'Traría. From the year 329, he was the most zealous and efficient opposer of Nestorius and his doctrines; wrote against him; condemned his doctrines in a synod at Alexandria, in his noted twelve Chapters; presided in the council of Ephesus, where Nestorius was condemned and deposed, A. D. 431. His zeal against Nestorius drew on himself deposition by some oriental bishops; but he was soon restored. With the bishop of Rome, he was always on the most friendly terms. He was certainly a man of talents, and his voluminous writings display much acuteness and learning, though the style is unpolished and not very clear. More than half of them are expositions of the Scripture ; viz. of the Pentateuch, Isaiah, the minor Prophets, and the Gospel of John. The others are polemic treatises against Arians, Nestorians, and others, who erred in respect to the Trinity and the person of Christ; ten books against Julian; about fifty Sermons; and near sixty Letters. See his life in Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xviii. p. 313-354. Tr.] 6 For a fine edition of the whole works of Theodoret, we are indebted to the Jesuit, Jac. Sirmond, who edited them at Paris, 1642, in four volumes, folio. The Jesuit, Jo. Garnier, afterwards added a fifth volume, Paris, 1685, folio. [Theodoret, or Theodorit, was born at Antioch, about the year 386, of wealthy and pious parents. He was their only child, and, like Samuel, the son of their Vows; and, therefore, named Theodoretus, given of God. When not quite seven years old, he was placed in a neighbouring monastery for education, where he had for associates Nestorius and John, who became the patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch; and for instructors, Theodorus, bishop of Mopsuestia, and Chrysostom, from whom he learned eloquence and sacred literature. He became early pious, was made first He lector, and then deacon, in the church of Antioch; and in the year 420, was ordained bishop of Cyrus, a considerable city in Syria, near the Euphrates, where he is said to have had the charge of 800 churches. The country was overrun with anti-trinitarian sectarians and with Marcionites; of whom he nearly purged his diocese, having, as he says, baptized no less than 10,000 Marcionites. In the year 429, his early friend Nestorius broached his errors respecting the person of Christ, and was condemned by Cyril of Alexandria. Theodoret espoused the cause of his friend, which involved him in a quarrel with Cyril as long as they lived. was one of those who, in the year 431, deposed Cyril at Ephesus; for which he was sent home in disgrace by the emperor, Theodosius Junior. Cyril died in 444; and Theodoret expressed his joy at the event, which so enraged the emperor, that he confined him to his house. In 449 he was deposed in the second synod of Ephesus, and applied to the bishop of Rome, who now espoused his cause. Theodosius died in 450, and his successor restored Theodoret to his see, and afterwards summoned him to be a member of the council of Chalcedon in 451, where he professed his orthodoxy, and was reluctantly brought to condemn Nestorius. After this, returning to his diocese, he devolved most of his episcopal duties on Hypatius, and devoted himself to writing books, till the year 457, when he died, aged about 71. He was frank, openhearted, ingenuous, had elevated views and feelings, was resolute and unbending, yet generous, sympathetic, and ardently pious. His learning was great, his genius good, and his productions among the best of that age. The first and second volumes of his works embrace his Commentaries on the greater part of the Old Testament. Volume third contains Comments on all the Epistles of Paul; Historia Ecclesiastica, in five books (a continuation of Eusebius, from A. D. 320 to A. D. 427, written in a style elevated, clear, and well adapted to history); Philotheus, or Historia Religiosa (eulogies of thirty distinguish 7 of Pelusium we have epistles, which display more piety, ingenuity, erudition, and judgment, than the large volumes of some others. Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, has left us very little in writing; but has perpetuated his name by his opposition to Origen and to his followers." Palladius, on account of his ed monks); and 146 Epistles. Volume fourth contains four books or dialogues, entitled Eranistes, or Polymorphus (polemic, on the person of Christ); Hæreticarum Fabular. libri v. (an account of the ancient Heresies); de Providentia Orationes x. adversus Gentes, or Græcarum affectionum curatio, (an apology for Christianity,) in twelve books; and some other small pieces. The fifth volume contains some other expository pieces, several sermons, thirty-four epistles, and seven dialogues against the Arians, Macedonians, and Apollinarists. All his works, Greek and Latin, with notes, were republished by J. L. Schulze, Halle, 1768-74, in five volumes, in nine, 8vo. See his life, in Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xviii. p. 355-432. Tr.] 7 [Numerous short epistles. Tr.] 8 The best edition of these letters is that of the Jesuit, Andr. Schott, Paris, 1638, fol. [Isidorus was probably a native of Alexandria, but he spent his life in a monastery near Pelusium, now Damietta, on one of the mouths of the Nile; and hence his surname of Pelusiota. He flourished about A. D. 412, but was active and conspicuous from the year 388 to 431. As a monk, he was very austere in his mode of living; and retiring from the noise and bustle of the world, he devoted himself to reading and expounding the Scriptures, and to the practice and the promotion of piety and virtue. He chose the epistolary form of writing; and has left us 2013 short letters, which are divided into five books. In most of them a question is proposed, and answered by the exposition of a text of Scripture. The object is to expound the Scriptures, and to inculcate the doctrines and duties of religion. He was an admirer of Chrysostom, and, of course, had difficulty with Theophilus and Cyril, the patriarchs of Alexandria. But he feared no man whenever he thought duty called him to defend truth, or to censure vice. Tr.] 9 See Euseb. Renaudot, Historia Patriarchar. Alexandrinor. p. 103. [Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria from the year 385 to the year 412, was a man of a strong, active, courageous mind; but crafty, unscrupulous, selfish, and ambitious. He probably spent some of his early years among the monks of Nitria. Afterwards he became a presbyter of Alexandria, wrote a Paschal Cycle in 380, and was made bishop in 385. In the year 388, when Theodosius senior waged war in Italy upon Maximus the usurper, Theophilus sent his legate, Isidorus, to Rome, with letters and presents for both emperors, but with instructions to await the issue of the battle, and then to present only the letter and presents directed to the victor. (Sozomen, H. E. viii. 2.) In the year 391, he solicited and obtained of the emperor leave to persecute the pagans of Alexandria, and proceeded to demolish their temples, and seize whatever was valuable in them. Insurrections, and bloodshed, and the flight of the philosophers from Egypt, were the consequence. (Socrates, H. E. v. c. 16.) The major part of the ignorant monks of Nitria had so gross ideas of the supreme Being, as to suppose that he literally had eyes and feet and hands; and were therefore called Anthropomorphites. But the better informed monks held, that these expressions were to be taken metaphorically, as Origen had always interpreted them. And thus this controversy resolved itself into a contest respecting Origen's correctness theologian. At first Theophilus favoured the Origenists; but the Anthropomorphites came upon him tumultuously, about the year 399, and compelled him to change sides. From this time he was a zealous persecutor of all Origenists, (notwithstanding he continued to read and admire his works,) and actually made a bloody crusade against those Nitric monks who opposed the Anthropomorphites, drove them from Egypt, and followed them with persecution; and also all who befriended them, and in particular Chrysostom, whom he deposed in the year 403. See Socrates, H. E. vi. 7-17. Sozomen, viii. 11-19. His works are not numerous, and have as a Lausiac History, and his Life of Chrysostom, deserves a place among the better and more useful writers. Notwithstanding that Theodore of Mopsuestia was accused, after his death, of the grossest error, yet every one who has examined the extracts from his writings by Photius, will regret that his works are either entirely lost, or exist only in Syriac among the Nestorians.2 Nilus composed many works calculated to excite religious emotions, but more commendable for the writer's good intentions than for careful execution.3 Our designed brevity obliges never been collected and published by themselves. They consist of three Paschal Letters, or Episcopal Charges; several Letters; and considerable extracts from different polemic treatises. Tr.] [Palladius was born in Galatia, in the year 368. In his twentieth year he went to Egypt, and spent several years among different tribes of monks. The failure of his health obliged him to return from the wilderness to Alexandria, and thence to Palestine. In the year 400, Chrysostom made him bishop of Helenopolis in Bithynia; which he exchanged, some years after, for Aspona in Galatia. The time of his death is unknown, but it is supposed to have been before A. D. 431. Palladius was a man of moderafe talents and erudition, but pious, a devoted monk, and a perspicuous, unassuming writer. His works are: I. Historia Lausiaca, seu de SS. Patrum Vitis, ad Lausum cubiculi Præfectum, (Biography of thirty of the most famous monks ;) written about the year 421; edited, Greek and Latin, by Fronto le Duc, in his Auctarium Biblioth. Patr. tom. ii. p. 893-1053, Paris, 1624, fol. Some additions were afterwards published by Cotelier, Monument. Eccl. Gr. tom. iii. Several Latin translations are extant, often published. II. Dialogus de Vita S. Johan. Chrysostomi, inter Palladium Episc. Hellenopolitanum et Theodorum, (Life or Eulogy of John Chrysostom,) first published, Greek and Latin, by Emer. Bigot, Paris, 1680, and again 1738, 4to, with some other works. Whether the Palladius who wrote this was the same as the author of the Lausiac History, has been questioned. III. De Gentibus India, et Branchmannis Liber, is extant under his name; but it is not supposed to be genuine. Tr.] 2 See Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Oriental. Clement. Vaticana, tom. iii. p. ii. p. 227, [and ibid. pt. i. p. 3-362, where we have Ebed Jesu's catalogue of his works. Theodorus was born and educated at Antioch, where he was some time a presbyter, and where he and Chrysostom instructed youth in a monastery, and had for pupils Theodoret, the famous Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, and John, patriarch of Antioch. In the year 392, he was made bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia, where he spent thirty-six years, with great reputation as a preacher, a bishop, and especially as an author. After his death, which happened in the year 428, he was accused of Nestorian, and likewise of Pelagian, sentiments; and was condemned as a heretic, in the fifth general council at Constantinople, A.D. 553. His writings were very numerous, embracing literal expositions of nearly the whole Bible; elaborate polemic works against the Arians, Eunomians, Appollinarists, &c., with many Sermons and Epistles, and a Liturgy. A Latin translation of the last is in Renaudot, Liturgiar. Oriental. Collectio, tom. ii. p. 616-625. His Expositio Fidei entire, with copious extracts from many of his other works, are extant in the Acts of the fifth general council, apud Harduin, tom. iii. in the works of Marius Mercator, and of other Fathers, and in the Catena Patrum, especially the Catena in Octateuchum, Lips. 1772, 2 vols. fol.; and in Münter's Fragmenta Patr. Gr. Fascic. i. p. 79, &c. Copenhag. 1788, 8vo. See Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xv. p. 176-218; and Lardner, Credibility, &c., vol. ix. p. 389, &c. Tr.] 3 [Nilus was born of a noble family, at Constantinople, where he became prefect of the city. Under the preaching of Chrysostom he became pious, renounced the world, separated from his wife, and taking one of his two sons with him, retired among the |