PREFACE

This is the third annual Yearbook of the National Society to deal with an important phase of the administration of rural schools. In 1911 The Rural School as a Community Center was discussed and in 1912, Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools. These volumes were made up of contributions from experts in the several lines of rural education which were considered, and contained accounts of what was actually being achieved in typical situations.

The Secretary has continued the policy pursued in 1911 and 1912, and with the able assistance of Mr. A. C. Monahan, specialist in rural education of the National Bureau of Education, has organized this volume on Supervision of Rural Schools. Mr. Monahan made the program and suggested the contributors, and the Secretary arranged with the latter for their contributions.

Upon the urgent request of the Secretary, Mr. Monahan agreed to prepare the introductory paper himself. To him and to the other specialists who have contributed, the Society is indebted for their assistance and co-operation. The bibliography prepared by Mr. J. D. Wolcott, of the Bureau of Education, should prove of special service by assisting in further study of the problem.

I. THE STATUS OF THE SUPERVISION OF RURAL

SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES

A. C. MONAHAN

Specialist in Rural Education, U.S. Bureau of Education

The difference in organization for the management of school affairs in rural and urban portions of the United States makes rural supervision and urban supervision in large measure dissimilar problems. The schools in the ordinary urban system are under the charge of a city school board. The board employs a school superintendent who as its agent is both an administrative and a supervisory officer. In all but the larger cities he is the agent of the board in the management of the business of the school system, as well as in directing its instructional work. The duties delegated to him in connection with the repairs of the school buildings, buying school supplies, and administering the school funds are administrative; those of directing the instructional work of the school, arranging the course of study and dictating the methods of teaching, are supervisory. The selection of the teacher may be said to be both administrative and supervisory, but it is a function of the supervising officer wherever the school board employs two separate agents, a business manager and a school superintendent.

In the majority of states the unit for the management of rural school affairs and the unit for supervision are not the same. The administration and the supervision are, therefore, in large measure distinct. Both were formerly the functions of the school trustees. The tendency is now to turn over to a county superintendent the supervision, the trustees retaining the management of the school and the selection of the teacher. The unit of supervision for rural schools in 38 states is the county; the supervising officer, the county superintendent. In nearly twothirds of the states with county supervision the unit of administration is the "single district." This is a small area served in most cases by one school, usually-outside of villages-a one-room, one-teacher school. The voters of each school district elect a board of trustees who are their agents in the management of the school affairs. These trustees have, as a rule, complete control over the school and its affairs, respon

sible only to the voters of the district. They provide school buildings, make the necessary repairs, furnish supplies and facilities for teaching, secure the teacher and make rules and regulations to govern the school. They expend the school funds and in several states have the power to levy a special tax for school purposes.

The county superintendent under this district system is largely an advisory officer, holding whatever power he may possess by virtue of the county and state school funds which must pass through his hands and be expended with his approval. In many states he examines teachers and grants licenses to teach. Without his certificate no persons may be employed to teach in the district schools unless they hold certificates granted by the state. Through this function the county superintendent is given some power over the teachers. His principal duties are the administration of the county school funds, the examination and certification of teachers, the keeping of statistical records, and making reports to the county board of education and the state superintendent of public instruction, conducting teachers' institutes, visiting schools, and doing whatever he may be able to improve the quality of the instruction given in the school. His task is difficult, as the superintendent in the average county has to deal with as many separate boards of trustees as there are schools in the county.

Four states with the county for the unit of supervision have the township for the unit of organization for administrative purposes. In these states the duties, powers, and limitations of the county superintendent are practically as stated above. On the whole he has a better opportunity of accomplishing more for the good of the school, as he has fewer separate boards of trustees in his territory and, therefore, fewer trustees to educate and to influence into progressive action for the betterment of the schools. In eleven states the county is the unit of administration and the unit of supervision as well. In only five of these, however, is the actual balance of power in the hands of the county board of education. These five are properly organized for efficient supervision.

County supervision will probably never reach a satisfactory degree of efficiency, except in a comparatively few cases, until the county becomes the unit of administration, so that the county superintendent may be the agent of the county board of education in the management as well as in the supervision of the educational work of the schools.

And then he must be supplied with sufficient assistance so that the schools may be visited frequently. The average county superintendent under the present prevailing system visits each school in his county once during the school year, the average length of his visit being about two hours. In the 18 largest cities in the United States one supervising officer, devoting half or more than half of his time to supervision, is employed for each 19 teachers. It is probably true that the cityschool system must be more machine-like than the county system, and that the country teacher must depend more upon her own initiative and ingenuity and less upon the supervisor than the city teacher. However, enough supervisors should be provided so that each would have not over 40 teachers under his oversight. It is evident that the county superintendent without such assistance can do little to improve the quality of the teaching in his county through personal criticisms and suggestions coming from an actual knowledge of the teacher's strength and weakness as an instructor or as a school manager.

Rural supervision in the United States is in the hands of city, town, and union district superintendents in New England, town and township superintendents in Ohio, district superintendents in New York, division superintendents in Virginia, deputy state superintendents in Nevada, and county superintendents in all other states.

New England school affairs are almost entirely in the hands of township officials, the county having no authority and the state only partial authority over a few schools in townships which are receiving state aid. All schools in the township whether in the village or in the open country are under the management of the same township school board. Weak townships may form "union districts" for the purpose of engaging superintendents who divide their time between the townships hiring them. In managing the school affairs each township remains distinct and separate. In administration and supervision no distinction is made between urban and rural. City superintendents with very few exceptions have one or more rural schools under their oversight. In all other states except Delaware, Maryland, Florida, and Louisiana cities and incorporated towns are usually set apart as independent school districts under local control. The township superintendent of Ohio, therefore, does not necessarily have under his oversight the village schools, as incorporated villages and towns are, as a rule, independent. The district superintendents of New York have oversight of all town