Climax (Lat. climax, a ladder) is such an arrangement of the parts of a sentence that these rise step by step in importance and dignity, as: "The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces, The solemn temples, the great globe itself, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve." Tempest iv. I. Anticlimax is the reverse of climax, and produces, by a series of descending steps, an impression of absurdity. It may be employed for purposes of ridicule, as in Waller's lines: "And thou, Dalhousie, thou great god of war, (b) A figure of speech (oblique device) is the use of a word or expression in a different sense from that which properly belongs to it, for the sake of giving life or emphasis to an idea. Metaphor is equivalent to simile, with the words of likeness omitted, as: (simile) "Flowers are lovely; love is flower-like; (metaphor) Friendship is a sheltering tree." Metaphors should never be mixed. That is, the image raised in the mind must not, until it is completed, be broken in upon by another. Thus, in the frequently cited couplet of Addison : 16 · I bridle in my struggling Muse with pain, the first line is not open to objection, since the word "Muse " is used by metonymy (see below) for Pegasus, the winged horse of the Muses; but the introduction, in the second line, of a new figure, that of a ship, confuses the sense and violates good taste. The metaphor can always be converted into simile. Personification is that figure which attributes the characteristics of a living being to inanimate things, - as: Righteousness and peace have kissed each other;" "The sea saw it, and fled.". Psalms. Apostrophe, vision, allegory, and fable are figures of speech which may all be considered as varieties of personification. APOSTROPHE is direct address to the thing personified, generally to something absent as though present: "Chillon! thy prison is a holy place.” — BYRON. "O Death! where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory?" 1 Cor. xv. 55. VISION speaks of absent or past things indirectly, and as though present: "'Tis she! but why that bleeding bosom gored? Why dimly gleams the visionary sword?" (p. 112.) ALLEGORY is a prolonged personification in narrative form. Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," and Spenser's "Faerie Queen," are allegories. The FABLE is a brief allegory. 66 Thus : The pen is Metonymy is that figure by which one thing is brought to mind under the name of another. mightier than the sword." Here "the pen" stands for intellectual strength, and "the sword" for physical strength. Synecdoche is that figure of speech by which a part is put for the whole, thus giving a more convenient or more accurate presentation of the idea. Thus, "A fleet of ten sail" offers a striking picture of a fleet at sea, and avoids the possible conception of ten ships in dock. 5. varieties of thought and feeling that do not affect the arrangement of the parts of the sentence. Irony is the assertion of an opinion, or the expression of an emotion, in such a tone, or under such circumstances, as to imply the opposite. Thus: "Here under leave of Brutus and the rest, So are they all, all honorable men, Come I to speak in Cæsar's funeral.” SHAKESPEARE: Julius Cæsar, iii. 2. Satire and sarcasm are also types of expression that depend rather upon the spirit than upon the structure of the sentences in which they are conveyed. Hyperbole is exaggerated expression, and is generally used to increase the impressiveness of what is said. Thus, "And this man Is now become a god! .. He doth bestride the narrow world Like a colossus." SHAKESPEARE Julius Cæsar, i. 2. Allusion (Lat. alludere, to play with or about) is such a use of terms as brings to mind something not explicitly mentioned. Thus, "So Lycidas sunk low, but mounted high, Through the dear might of Him that walked the waves (p. 72). Allusion is to be distinguished from reference, in which the thing brought to mind is directly mentioned. III 1 The following Outline of Study may be found helpful in the literary examination of the texts gathered together in this volume. 1. What is the literary nature of the piece? Is it prose, or poetry? Descriptive, expository, or what? 1 The accounts of the several Periods of our literature, and the Sketches of the various authors, are intended to be merely informatory. While pupils ought to be possessed of the main features of these, the class exercise should be confined to literary study of the successive extracts. 2. What is the intent of the central thought of the piece? complete expression? progression? author, i. e., what is the Does this thought find Is it developed in an orderly 3. Look closely into the vocabulary of the lesson. Which predominate in it, words of Saxon, or words of Latin origin? (For any etymologies you do not know, consult Webster's International Dictionary.) In the sentence of paragraph substitute Saxon words for those of Latin origin. What is the resulting effect upon the style of the sentence? Is it clearer, or stronger, or more graceful? Reverse the process in the next sentence. 4. Consider the meanings of terms, especially in the case of qualifying words. Reconstruct the of paragraph sentence by substituting synonyms for all emphatic words. Are the changes of meaning for the better? Why? or why not? Are the rhythm and tastefulness of the sentence improved? 5. Invert the grammatical order of words, in the sentence of the paragraph, from direct to indirect. Is the rhetorical order the stronger? Is it suitable to the nature of the subject and to the context? In the sentence of paragraph reverse the process. Is the author's meaning made clearer by the change, or not? Can you 6. Point out a period in paragraph convert it into a loose sentence? What is the effect of the change? Is the sentence clearer, or not? Stronger, or weaker? If the piece is a poem it will afford exercise in reconstruction, both grammatical and rhetorical, by means of paraphrasing. This may be applied to the stanza, or to the whole selection, and will often make clear what would else seem obscure. Is the composi Paraphrase the poem on page —. tion lengthened? Why? Does fitness require that any of the poetic terms should find substitutes when reproduced in the prose form? page 7. What figures of speech can you point out in paragraph - ? Name them. Define them. Could the same thought in any instance be expressed with as much grace and force without the figure? Are the several figures well carried out? Convert the metaphor in the Change the allusion in sentence sentence into a simile. to direct reference. 8. Note the general qualities of the style of the selection, (a) as to clearness. Is the phraseology simple, or verbose? The treatment specific, or vague? Do you detect faults of tautology or circumlocution? (b) as to force. Is any strength of the piece due to antitheses, repetitions, suspense, or climax? (c) as to elegance. Is the arrangement of words and phrases harmonious, and therefore pleasurable to the ear? If not, express the same meaning in words of your own. |