they see their parents engaged in. Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks and schoolmasters; and thousands of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents on the superstitious interpretation of these words: "Out of the mouths of || babes and sucklings hast thou perfected praise." Their base conductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. Hume's Hist. of England, vol i. p. 292, &c. and vol. ii. p. 280; Enc. Brit. and Mosheim's Ecc. Hist.

CROISIERS, a religious order, founded in honour of the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed in several parts of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohemia; those of Italy were suppressed even before the late revolutions. These religious follow the rule of St. Augustine. They had in England the name of Crouched Friars,

cess of the croisaders, it was scarcely possible that any other thing could happen to them. The emperors of Constantinople, instead of assisting, did all in their power to disconcert their schemes: they were jealous, and not without reason, of such an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they considered their true interest, they would rather have assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than|| enter into alliances with the Turks. They followed the latter method, however, and were often of very great disservice to the western adventurers, which at last occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst enemies the croisaders had were their own internal feuds and dissentions. They neither could agree while marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor could they unite their conquests under one government after they had made them. They set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch, and another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made war upon CROSIER, or CROZIER, a shepherd's each other, and on the Greek empe- crook; a symbol of pastoral authority, rors; and thus became an easy prey to consisting of a gold or silver staff, crookthe common enemy. The horrid cruel-ed at the top, carried occasionally beties they committed, too, must have fore bishops and abbots, and held in the inspired the Turks with the most in-hand when they give the solemn benevincible hatred against them, and made dictions. them resist with the greatest obstinacy. They were such as could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed with the most bigotted enthusiasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only the numerous garrisons were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were massacred without mercy and without distinction. No age or sex was spared, not even sucking children. According to Voltaire, some Christians, who had been suffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the conquerors into the most private caves, where women had concealed themselves with their children, and not one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently shows the enthusiasm by which these conquerors were animated, is, their behaviour after this terrible slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy sepulchre; and while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons, sung anthems to the common Saviour of Mankind! Nay, so far did their religious enthusiasm overcome their fury, that these ferocious conquerors now burst into tears. If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be exceeded by any thing, it must be by what follows. In 1204, the frenzy of croisading seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what

CROSS, in Scripture language, means the sufferings of Christ, Gal. vi. 14. The sufferings, trials, or persecutions of the people are also called a cross, Matt. xvi. 24. Cross signifies also a gibbet, made with two pieces of wood, placed crosswise, whether they cross with right angles at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length like an X. The cross to which our Saviour was fastened, and on which he died, was of the former kind; being thus represented by old monuments, coins, and crosses. The death of the cross was the most dreadful of all others, both for the shame and pain of it; and so scandalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of detestation upon the vilest of people. It was the punishment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were slaves too; but otherwise, if they were free, and had the privilege of the city of Rome, this was then thought a prostitution of that honour, and too infamous a punishment for such a one, let his crimes be what they would. The form of a cross being such as has been already described, the body of the criminal was fastened to the upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and on the other transverse piece generally by nailing the hands on each side. Now, because these parts of the body, being

R

the instruments of action and motion, || sometimes with three. The criminal are provided by Nature with a much was fixed to the cross quite naked; and, greater quantity of nerves than others in all probability, the Saviour of sinners have occasion for; and because all sen- was not used with any greater tendersation is performed by the spirit con- ness than others upon whom his putained in the nerves, it will follow, as nishment was inflicted. The text of the Stanhope observes, that wherever they Gospel shows clearly that Jesus Christ abound, the sense of pain must needs in was fastened to the cross with nails; proportion be more quick and tender. and the Psalmist (Ps. xxii. 16.) had The Jews confess, indeed, that they foretold long before, that they should crucified people in their nation, but pierce his hands and his feet; but there deny that they inflicted this punishment are great disputes concerning the numupon any one alive They first put ber of these nails. The Greeks reprethem to death, and then fastened them sent our Saviour as fastened to the cross to the cross, either by the hands or with four nails, in which particular neck. But there are indisputable proofs Gregory of Tours agrees with them, of their crucifying men frequently alive, one on each hand and foot. But several The worshippers of Baal-peor, and the are of opinion that our Saviour's hands king of Ai were hung up alive; as were and feet were pierced with three nails also the descendants of Saul, who were only, viz. one on each hand, and one put into the hands of the Gibeonites, through both his feet: and the custom 2 Sam. xxi. 9. of the Latins is rather for this last opiBefore crucifixion, the criminal was nion; for the generality of the old generally scourged with cords; some- crucifixes made in the Latin church times little bones, or pieces of bones have only three nails. Nonnus thinks were tied to these scourges, so that the that our Saviour's arms were besides condemned person might suffer more bound fast to the cross with chains; and severely. It was also a custom, that he St. Hilary speaks of the cords wherewho was to be crucified should bear his with he was tied to it. Sometimes they own cross to the place of execution. who were fastened upon the cross lived After this manner, we find Christ was a good while in that condition. St. Ancompelled to bear his cross; and as he drew is believed to have continued three sunk under the burden, Simon the Cy- days alive upon it. Eusebius speaks of renian was constrained to bear it after certain martyrs in Egypt who were kept him and with him. But whereas it is upon the cross till they were starved to generally supposed that our Lord bore death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus the whole cross, i. e the long and trans-Christ's dying so soon, because naturalverse part both, this seems to be a thing ly he must have lived longer, if it had impossible and therefore Lipsius (in || not been in his power to have laid down his treatise De Supplicio Crucis) has his life, and to take it up again. The set the matter in a true light, when he thighs of the two thieves, who were tells us that Jesus only carried the crucified with our Saviour, were broken, transverse beam; because the long in order to hasten their death, that their beam, or the body of the cross, was bodies might not remain upon the cross either fixed in the ground before, or on the Sabbath day, John xix. 31, 33; made ready to be set up as soon as the and to comply with the law of Moses, prisoner came; and from hence he ob- which forbids the bodies to be left there serves, that painters are very much after sun-set But, among other nations, mistaken in the description of our Sa- they were suffered to remain upon the viour carrying the whole cross. There cross a long time. Sometimes they were were several ways of crucifying; some- devoured alive by birds and beasts of times the criminal was fastened with prey. Guards were appointed to obcords to a tree, sometimes he was cru- serve that none of their friends or relacified with his head downwards. I his tions should take them down and bury way, it is said, Peter chose, out of re- them. The Roman soldiers, who had spect to his master, Jesus Christ, not crucified Jesus Christ and the wo thinking himself worthy to be crucified thieves, continued near the crosses till like him; though the common way of the bodies were taken down and buried. crucifying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both feet, or one through each of them; for this was not always performed in the same manner; the ancient sometimes represent Jesus Christ crucified with four nails, and

Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast solemnized on the 3d of May, in memory of St. Helena's (the mother of Constantine) finding the true cross of Christ deep in the ground on Mount Calvary, where she erected a church for the preservation of part of it; the

rest being brought to Rome, and deposited in the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem.

Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feast held on the 14th of September, in memory of this, that Heraclitus restored to Mount Calvary the true cross, in 642, which had been carried off fourteen years before by Cosrocs, king of Persia, upon his taking Jerusalem from the emperor Phocas.

CRUSADE. See CROISADE.

CURATE, the lowest degree in the church of England; he who represents the incumbent of a church, parson, or vicar, and officiates in his stead: he is to be licensed and admitted by the bishop of the diocese, or by an ordinary The Adoration of the Cross seems to having episcopal jurisdiction, and when have been practised in the ancient a curate hath the approbation of the church in as much as the heathens, bishop, he usually appoints the salary particularly Julian, reproached the pri- too, and, in such case, if he be not paid, mitive Christians with it; and we do the curate hath a proper remedy in the not find that their apologists disclaimed ecclesiastical court, by a sequestration the charge. Mornay, indeed, asserted of the profits of the benefice, but if the that this had been done by St. Cyril, curate be not licensed by the bishop, but could not support his allegation at he is put to his remedy at common law, the conference of Fontainbleau. St. where he must prove the agreement, Helena is said to have reduced the ado- &c. A curate, having no fixed estate ration of the cross to its just principle, in his curacy, not being instituted and since she adored Christ in the wood, not inducted, may be removed at pleasure the wood itself. With such modifica- by the bishop, or incumbent. But there tions some Protestants have been in- are perpetual curates as well as temduced to admit the adoration of the porary, who are appointed where tithes cross. John Huss allowed of the phrase, are impropriate, and no vicarage enprovided it were expressly added, that || dowed: these are not removeable, and the adoration was relative to the person the improprietors are obliged to find of Christ. But, however Roman catho- them; some whereof have certain porlics may seem to triumph by virtue of tions of the tithes settled on them. Cusuch distinction and mitigations, it is rates must subscribe the declaration well known they have no great place according to the act of uniformity, or in their own practice. Imbert, the are liable to imprisonment. Though prior of Gascony, was severely prose- the condition of curates be somewhat cuted in 1683, for telling the people, ameliorated by a late act, it must be that, in the ceremony of adoring the confessed that they are still, in many cross, practised in that church on Good respects, exposed to hardships: their Friday, they were not to adore the salaries are not equal to many dissentwood, but Christ, who was crucified on ing ministers, who have nothing to deit. The curate of the parish told them pend on but the liberality of their peothe contrary. It was the wood; the ple. Can there be a greater reproach to wood they were to adore! Imbert re- the dignified ecclesiastics of this counplied, it was Christ, not the wood; for try, than the comparatively miserable which he was cited before the arch- pittance allowed the curates, who do all bishop of Bourdeaux, suspended from the labour? Surely they must be a set of his functions, and even threatened with useless beings, to reap so little wages; chains and perpetual imprisonment. It or else they are unjustly treated!!! little availed him to cite the bishop of Meaux's distinction; it was answered, that the church allowed it not.

CROSS-BEARER, in the Romish church, the chaplain of an archbishop, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions. Cross-bearers also denote certain officers in the Inquisition, who make a vow before the Inquisitors, or their vicars, to defend the catholic faith, though with the loss of fortune and life. Their business is also to provide the Inquisitors with necessaries.

CRUCIFIX, a cross, upon which the body of Christ is fastened in effigy, used by the Roman catholics, to excite in

CURIOSITY, a propensity or disposition of the soul which inclines it to enquire after new objects, and to delight in viewing them. Curiosity is proper, when it springs from a desire to know our duty, to mature our judgments, to enlarge our minds, and to regulate our conduct; but improper when it wishes to know more of God, of the decrees; the origin of evil; the state of men, or the nature of things, than it is designed for us to know. The evil of this is evident. It reproaches God's goodness; it is a violation of Scripture, Deut. xxii. 29; it robs us of our time; it often makes us unhappy, lessens our usefulness, and.

ture language it signifies the just and lawful sentence of God's law, condemning sinners to suffer the full punishment of their sin, Gal. iii. 10.

CURSING and Swearing. See SWEARING.

CUSTOM, a very comprehensive term, denoting the manners. ceremonies, and fashions of a people, which having turned into habit, and passed into use, obtain the force of laws. Custom and habit are often confounded. By custom, we mean a frequent reiteration of the same act; and by habit, the effect that custom has on the mind or the body. See HABIT.

produces mischief. To cure this disposition let us consider the divine command, Phil. iv. 6. that every thing essential is revealed; that God cannot err; that we shall be satisfied in a future state, Is. xiii. 7. Curiosity concerning the affairs of others is exceedingly reprehensible. "It interrupts," says an elegant writer, "the order, and breaks the peace of society. Persons of this disposition are dangerous troublers of the world. Crossing the lines in which others move, they create confusion, and awaken resentment. Hence, many a friendship has been broken; the peace of many a family has been overthrown; and much bitter and lasting discord has Viewing man," says Lord Kames, been propagated through society. Such "as a sensitive being, and perceiving a disposition is entirely the reverse of the influence of novelty upon him, would that amiable spirit of charity our Lord one suspect that custom has an equal. inculcates. Charity, like the sun, bright- influence? and yet our nature is equally ens every object on which it shines: a susceptible of both; not only in different censorious disposition casts every cha- || objects, but frequently in the same. racter into the darkest shade it will When an object is new, it is enchanting; bear. It is to be further observed, that familiarity renders it indifferent; and all impertinent curiosity about the af- custom, after a longer familiarity, makes fairs of others tends greatly to obstruct it again desirable. Human nature, dipersonal reformation. They who are versified with many and various springs so officiously occupied about their neigh- of action, is wonderful, and indulging bours, have little leisure, and less in- the expression, intricately constructed. clination, to observe their own defects, Custom hath such influence upon many or to mind their own duty. From their of our feelings, by warping and varying inquisitive researches, they find, or them, that we must attend to its operaimagine they find, in the behaviour of tions, if we would be acquainted with others, an apology for their own fail- human nature. A walk upon the quarings; and the favourite result of their ter-deck, though intolerably confined, enquiries generally is, to rest satisfied becomes, however, so agreeable by with themselves. We should consider, custom, that a sailor, in his walk on also, that every excursion of vain cu- shore, confines himself commonly withriosity about others is a subtraction from in the same bounds. I knew a man who that time and thought which are due to || had relinquished the sea for a country ourselves, and to God. In the great life: in the corner of his garden he circle of human affairs, there is room reared an artificial mount, with a level for every one to be busy, and well em- summit, resembling, most accurately, a ployed in his own province, without quarter-deck, not only in shape, but in encroaching upon that of others. It is size; and here was his choice walk." the province of superiors to direct; of Such we find is often the power of cusinferiors to obey; of the learned to be tom. instructive; of the ignorant to be docile; of the old to be communicative; of the young to be adviseable and diligent. In all the various relations which subsist among us in life, as husband and wife, master and servants, parents and children, relations and friends, rulers and subjects, innumerable duties stand ready to be performed; innumerable calls to activity present themselves on every hand, sufficient to fill up with ad an age and honour the whole time of man.' Blair's Serm. vol. iv. ser. 8; Clarke's Serm. ser. on Deut. xxix. 29; Seed's Posth. Serm ser. 7.

CURSE, the action of wishing any tremendous evil to another. In Scrip

CYNICS, a sect of ancient philosophers, who valued themselves upon their contempt of riches and state, arts and sciences, and every thing, in short, except virtue and morality. They owe their origin and institution to Antisthenes of Athens, a disciple of Socrates; who being asked of what use his philosophy had been to him, replied, "it enables me to live with myself." Diogenes was the most famous of his disciples, in whose life the system of this philosophy appears in its greatest perfection. He led a most whimsical life, despising every kind of convenience; a tub serving him for a lodging, which he rolled before him wherever he went: yet he was

not the more humble on account of his with still greater pride, Diogenes!" He ragged cloak, bag, and tub. One day had the utmost contempt for all the huentering Plato's house, at a time when man race; for he walked the street of there was a splendid entertainment for Athens at noon day, with a lighted lanseveral persons of distinction, he jump- || tern in his hand, telling the people "he ed, in all his dirt, upon a very rich was in search of an honest man." But couch, saying, "I trample on the pride with all his maxims of morality, he held of Plato "yes," replied Plato," but some very pernicious opinions.

DAMIANISTS, a denomination in the sixth century, so called from Damian, bishop of Alexandria. Their opinions were the same as the Angelites, which see.

DEMONS, a name given by the ancients to certain spirits or genii, which, they say, appeared to men, either to do them service, or to hurt them.

Several of the heathen philosophers held that there were different kinds of demons; that some of them were spiritual substances, of a more noble origin than the human race, and that others had once been men.

But those dæmons who were the more immediate objects of the established worship among the ancient nations were human spirits, such as were believed to become dæmons, or deities, after their departure from their bodies.

D.

er.

volition and other mental faculties are overpowered and restrained, and his body possessed and actuated by some created spiritual being of superior powSuch seems to be the determinate sense of the word; but it is disputed whether any of mankind ever were in this unfortunate condition. That the reader way form some judgment, we shall lay before him the arguments on both sides.

I. Damoniacs, arguments against the existence of. Those who are unwilling to allow that angels or devils have ever intermeddled with the concerns of human life, urge a number of specious arguments. The Greeks and Romans of old, say they, did believe in the reality of dæmonical possession. They supposed that spiritual beings did at times enter into the sons and daughters of men, and distinguish themselves in that situation by capricious freaks, deeds of wanton mischief, or prophetic enunciations. But in the instances in which they supposed this to happen, it is evident no such thing took place. Their accounts of the state and conduct of those persons whom they believed to be possessed in this supernatural manner, show plainly that what they ascribed to the influence of dæmons were merely the effect of natural diseases. Whatever they relate concerning the larvati, the cerriti, and the lymphatici, shows that these were merely people disor

It has been generally thought, that by damons we are to understand devils, in the Septuagint version of the Old Testament. Others think the word is in that version certainly applied to the ghosts of such dead men as the hea thens deified, in Deut. xxxii. 17. Ps. cvi. 37. that demon often bears the same meaning in the New Testament, and particularly in Acts xvii. 18. 1 Cor x. 21. 1 Tim. iv. 1. Rev. ix. 13. is shown at large by Mr. Joseph Mede, (see Works, p. 623, et. seq.) That the word is applied always to human spirits in the New Testament, Mr. Farmer has attempted to shew in his Essay on Da-dered in mind, in the same unfortunate moniacs, p. 208. et seq. As to the meaning of the word Dæmon in the fathers of the Christian church, it is used by them in he same sense as it was by the heathen philosophers, especially the latter Platonists; that is, sometimes for departed human spirits, and at other times for such spirits as had never inhabited human bodies. In the fathers, indeed, the word is more commonly taken in an evil sense, than in the ancient philosophers.

DEMONIAC, a human being whose

situation with those madmen, ideots, and melancholy persons, whom we have among ourselves. Festus describes the larvati, as being furiosi et mente moti. Lucian describes dæmoniacs as lunatic, and as staring with their eyes, foaming at the mouth, and being speechless. It appears still more evident that all the persons spoken of as possessed with devils in the New Testament, were either mad or epileptic, and precisely in the same condition with the madmen and epileptics of modern times. The