is derived from the Hebrew Scriptures. || bim he explains to be a hieroglyphic of The truth of it rests on these supposi- divine construction, or a sacred image, tions. 1. That the Hebrew language to describe, as far as figures could go, was formed under divine inspiration, the humanity united to Deity and so either all at once, or at different times, he treats of several other words of sias occasion required; and that the Di-milar import. From all which he convine Being had a view in constructing cluded, that the rites and ceremonies of it, to the various revelations which he the Jewish dispensation were so many in all succeeding times should make in delineations of Christ, in what he was that language: consequently, that its to be, to do, and to suffer; that the words must be the most proper and de- early Jews knew them to be types of his terminate to convey such truths as the actions and sufferings; and, by performDeity, during the Old Testament dis-ing them as such, were so far Christians pensation, thought fit to make known to both in faith and practice. the sons of men. Farther than this: that the inspired penmen of those ages at least were under the guidance of heaven in the choice of words for recording what was revealed to them: therefore that the Old Testament, if the language be rightly understood, is || the most determinate in its meaning of any other book under heaven.-2. That whatever is recorded in the Old Testament is strictly and literally true, allowing only for a few common figures of rhetoric: that nothing contrary to truth is accommodated to vulgar appre-opinions of Mr. Hutchinson, he may hensions.

The Hutchinsonians have, for the most part, been men of devout minds, zealous in the cause of Christianity, and untainted with heterodox opinions, which have so often divided the church of Christ. The names of Romaine, Bishop Horne, Parkhurst, and others of this denomination, will be long esteemed, both for the piety they possessed, and the good they have been the instruments of promoting amongst mankind.Should the reader wish to know more of the philosophical and theological

consult a work, entitled "An Abstract of the Works of John Hutchinson, Esq. Edinburgh, 1753." See also Jones's Life of Bishop Horne, 2d edit. Jones's Works; Spearman's Inquiry, p. 260— 273.

In proof of this the Hutchinsonians argue in this manner. The primary and ultimate design of revelation is indeed to teach men divinity; but in subserviency to that, geography, history, and chronology, are occasionally intro- HYMN, a song or ode in honour of duced; all which are allowed to be just the Divine Being. St. Hilary, bishop of and authentic. There are also innume- Poictiers, is said to have been the first rable reference to things of nature, and who composed hymns to be sung in descriptions of them. If, then, the for-churches, and was followed by St. Ammer are just, and to be depended on, for the same reason the latter ought to be esteemed philosophically true. Farther: they think it not unworthy of God, that he should make it a secondary end of his revelation to unfold the secrets of his works; as the primary was to make known the mysteries of his nature, and the designs of his grace, that men might thereby be led to admire and adore the wisdom and goodness which the great Author of the universe has displayed throughout all his works. And as our minds are often referred to na tural things for ideas of spiritual truths, it is of great importance, in order to conceive aright of divine matters, that our ideas of the natural things referred to be strictly just and true.

Mr. Hutchinson found that the Hebrew Scriptures had some capital words, which he thought had not been duly considered and understood; and which, he has endeavoured to prove, contain in their radical meaning the greatest and most comfortable truths. The cheru

brose. Most of those in the Roman breviary were composed by Prudentius. The hymns or odes of the ancients generally consisted of three sorts of stanzas, one of which was sung by the band as they walked from east to west; another was performed as they returned from west to east; the third part was sung before the altar. The Jewish hymns were accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals, to assist the voices of the Levites and the people. We have had a considerable number of hymns composed in our own country. The most esteemed are those of Watts, Doddridge, Newton, and Hart. As to selections, few are superior to Dr. Rippon's and Dr. Williams's. See PSALMODY.

HYPOCRISY is a seeming or professing to be what in truth and reality we are not. It consists in assuming a character which we are conscious does not belong to us, and by which we intentionally impose upon the judgment and opinion of mankind concerning us.

I & J.

| bull, in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansenius. However, the Jansenists affirmed that these propositions were not to be found in this book; but that some of his enemies having caused them to be printed on a sheet, inserted them in the book, and thereby deceived the pope. At last Clement XI. put an end to the dispute by his constitution of July 17, 1705, in which, after having recited the constitutions of his predecessors in relation to this affair, he declared, That, in order to pay a proper obedience to the papal constitutions concerning the present question, it is necessary to receive them with a respectful silence." The clergy of Paris, the same year, approved and accepted this bull, and none dared to oppose it. This is the famous bull Unigenitus, so called from its beginning with the words, Unigenitus Dei Filius, &c. which has occasioned so much confusion in France.

46

In the year 1640, the two universities just mentioned, and particularly father Molina and father Leonard Celsus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Jesuits on grace and free will. This having set the controversy on foot, Jansenius opposed to the doctrine of the Jesuits the sentiments of St. Augustine, and wrote a treatise on grace which he entitled Augustinus. This treatise was attacked by the Jesuits, who accused Jansenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opinions; and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of Pope Urban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatise wrote by Jansenius, when the partizans of Jansenius gave out that this bull was spurious, and composed by a person entirely devoted to the Jesuits. After the death of Urban VIII. the affair of Jansenism began to be more warmly controverted, and gave birth to a great number of polemical writings concerning grace; and what occasioned some mirth, were the titles which each party It was not only on account of their gave to their writings: one writer pub- embracing the doctrines of Augustine, lished the Torch of St. Augustine; that the Jesuits were so imbittered another found Snuffers of St. Augus- against them; but that which offended tine's Torch; and father Veron formed the Jesuits, and the other creatures of A Gag for the Jansenists, &c. In the the Roman pontiff, was, their strict year 1650, sixty-eight bishops of France piety, and severe moral discipline. The subscribed a letter to pope Innocent X. Jansenists cried out against the corrupto obtain an inquiry into and condemna- tions of the church of Rome, and comtion of the five following propositions, plained that neither its doctrines nor extracted from Jansenius's Augustinus: morals retained any traces of their for1. Some of God's commandments are mer purity. They reproached the clergy impossible to be observed by the righ- with an universal depravation of sentiteous, even though they endeavour with ments and manners, and an entire forall their power to accomplish them.- getfulness of the dignity of their cha2. In the state of corrupted nature, we racter and the duties of their vocation; are incapable of resisting inward grace. they censured the licentiousness of the -3. Merit and demerit, in a state of monastic orders, and insisted upon the corrupted nature, do not depend on a necessity of reforming their discipline liberty which excludes necessity, but on according to the rules of sanctity, aba liberty which excludes constraint.-4. stinence, and self-denial, that were oriThe Semi-pelagians admitted the ne- ginally prescribed by their respective cessity of an inward preventing grace founders. They maintained, also, that for the performance of each particular the people ought to be carefully inact, even for the beginning of faith; structed in all the doctrines and prebut they were heretics in maintaining cepts of Christianity, and that, for this that this grace was of such a nature that purpose, the Holy Scriptures and pubthe will of man was able either to re- lic liturgies should be offered to their sist or obey it.-5. It is Semi-pelagian-perusal in their mother tongue; and, ism to say, that Jesus Christ died, or shed his blood, for all mankind in general.

In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congregation for examining into the dispute relative to grace. In this congregation Jansenius was condemned; and the bull of condemnation published in May, 1653, filled all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and alarms against the Jansenists. In the year 1656, pope Alexander VII. issued out another

|

finally, they looked upon it as a matter of the highest moment to persuade all Christians that true piety did not consist in the observance of pompous rites, or in the performance of external acts of devotion, but in inward holiness and divine love.

Notwithstanding the above-mentioned sentiments, the Jansenists have been accused of superstition and fanaticism; and, on account of their severe discipline and practice, have been denomi

nated Rigourists. It is said, that they made repentance consist chiefly in those voluntary sufferings which the transgressor inflicted upon himself, in proportion to the nature of his crimes and the degree of his guilt. They tortured and macerated their bodies by painful labour, excessive abstinence, continual prayer, and contemplation: nay, they carried these austerities, it is said, to so high a pitch, as to place merit in them, and to consider those as the sacred victims of repentance who had gradually put an end to their days by their excessive abstinence and labour. Dr. Haweis, however, in his Church History, (vol. iii. p. 46,) seems to form a more favourable opinion of them. "I do not," says he, "readily receive the accusations that Papists or Protestants have object-gory I. and II. Leo was excommunicaed to them, as over rigorous and fana ted; and his subjects in the Italian protic in their devotion; but I will admit vinces violated their allegiance, and rimany things might be blameable: a sing in arms, either massacred or bantincture of popery might drive them to ished all the emperor's deputies and push monkish austerities too far, and officers. In consequence of these prosecretly to place some merit in mortifi- ceedings, Leo assembled a council at cation, which they in general disclaim- Constantinople in 730, which degraded ed; yet, with all that can be said, surely || Germanus, bishop of that city, who was the root of the matter was in them. a patron of images; and he ordered all When I read Jansenius, or his disciples the images to be publicly burnt, and inPascal or Quesnel, I bow before such flicted a variety of severe punishments distinguished excellencies, and confess upon such as were attached to that idothem my brethren; shall I say my fa- latrous worship. Hence arose two facthers? Their principles are pure and tions, one of which adopted the adoraevangelical; their morals formed upon tion and worship of images, and on that the apostles and prophets; and their account were called iconduli or incozeal to amend and convert, blessed with nolatre; and the other maintained that eminent success." such worship was unlawful, and that IBERIANS, a denomination of east-nothing was more worthy the zeal of ern Christians, which derive their name from Iberia, a province of Asia now called Georgia: hence they are also called Georgians. Their tenets are said to be the same with those of the Greek church; which see.

|| led by a revolution, which, in 713, deprived Bardanes of the imperial throne. The dispute, however, broke out with redoubled fury under Leo the Isaurian, who issued out an edict in the year 726, abrogating, as some say, the worship of images; and ordering all the images, except that of Christ's crucifixion, to be removed out of the churches; but, according to others, this edict only prohibited the paying to them any kind of adoration or worship. This edict occasioned a civil war, which broke out in the islands of the Archipelago, and, by the suggestions of the priests and monks, ravaged a part of Asia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil commotions and insurrections in Italy, were chiefly promoted by the Roman pontiffs, Gre

Christians than to demolish and destroy those statues and pictures which were the occasion of this gross idolatry; and hence they were distinguished by the titles of icono-machi (from ex image, and axe, I contend) and iconoclasta. ICONOCLASTES, or ICONOCLAS- The zeal of Gregory II. in favour of TÆ, breakers of images: a name which image worship was not only irritated, the church of Rome gives to all who re-but even surpassed, by his successor ject the use of images in religious matters. The word is Greek, formed from || SIXON imago, and λar rumpere, "to break." In this sense not only the reformed, but some of the eastern churches, are called iconoclastes, and esteemed || by them heretics, as opposing the worship of the images of God and the saints, and breaking their figures and representations in churches.

The opposition to images began in Greece, under the reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the Greeks a little after the commencement of the eighth century, when the worship of them became common See IMAGE. But the tumults occasioned by it were quel

Gregory III in consequence of which the Italian provinces were torn from the Grecian empire. Constantine, called Copronimus, in 754, convened a council at Constantinople, regarded by the Greeks as the seventh œcumenical council, which solemnly condemned the worship and use of images. Those who, notwithstanding this decree of the council, raised commotions in the state, were severely punished, and new laws were enacted to set bounds to the violence of monastic rage. Leo IV. who was declared emperor in 775, pursued the same measures, and had recourse to the coercive influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry out of the Christian

church. Irene, the wife of Leo, poison- || Orthodoxy. The Latins were generally ed her husband in .780; assumed the of opinion that images might be sufferreins of the empire during the minorityed, as the means of aiding the memory of her son Constantine; and in 786 sum- of the faithful, and of calling to their remoned a council at Nice, in Bithynia, membrance the pious exploits and virknown by the name of the Second Ni-tuous actions of the persons whom they cene Council, which abrogated the law represented; but they detested all and decrees against the new idolatry, thoughts of paying them the least marks restored the worship of images and of of religious homage or adoration. The the cross, and denounced severe punish- council of Paris assembled in 824 by ments against those who maintained that Louis the Meek, resolved to allow the God was the only object of religious ado-use of images in the churches, but seration. In this contest the Britons, Ger- verely prohibited rendering them relimans, and Gauls, were of opinion that gious worship: nevertheless, towards images might be lawfully continued in the conclusion of this century, the Gallican clergy began to pay a kind of rechurches; but they considered the worship of them as highly injurious and of-ligious homage to the images of saints, fensive to the Supreme Being. Charle- and their example was followed by the magne distinguished himself as a media- Germans and other nations. However, tor in this controversy: he ordered four the Iconoclastes still had their adherents books concerning images to be compos- among the Latins the most eminent of whom was Claudius, bishop of Turin, ed, refuting the reasons urged by the Nicene bishops to justify the worship of who, in 823, ordered all images, and images, which he sent to Adrian, the even the crosses to be cast out of the Roman pontiff, in 790, in order to en-churches, and committed to the flames; gage him to withdraw his approbation and he wrote a treatise, in which he deof the decrees of the last council of Nice.clared both against the use and worship Adrian wrote an answer; and in 794 a council of 300 bishops, assembled by Charlemagne, at Francfort, on the Maine, confirmed the opinion contained in the four books, and solemnly condemned the worship of images.

of them. He condemned relics, pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and all voyages to the tombs of saints; and to his writing and labours it was owing, that the city of Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time after his death, much less infected with superstition than the other parts of Europe. The

In the Greek church, after the banishment of Irene, the controversy concerning images broke out anew, and was car-controversy concerning the sanctity of ried on by the contending parties, during the half of the ninth century, with various and uncertain success. The empe ror Nicephorus appears upon the whole to have been an enemy to this idolatrous worship. His successor, Michael Curo palates, surnamed Rhangabe, patronised and encouraged it. But the scene changed on the accession of Leo, the Armenian, to the empire, who assembled a council at Constantinople, in 812, that abolished the decrees of the Nicene council. His successor, Michael, surnamed Balbus, disapproved of the worship of images, and his son Theophilus, treated them with great severity. How ever, the empress Theodora, after his death, and during the minority of her son, assembled a council at Constantinople in 842, which reinstated the decrees of the second Nicene council, and encouraged image worship by a law. The council held at the same place under Protius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks the eighth general council, confirmed and renewed the Nicene decrees. In commemoration of this counčil, a festival was instituted by the superstitious Greeks, called the Feast of

images was again revived by Leo, bishop
of Chalcedon: in the 11th century, on
occasion of the emperor Alexius's con-
verting the figures of silver that adorned
the portals of the churches into money,
in order to supply the exigencies of the
state. The bishop obstinately maintain-
ed that he had been guilty of sacrilege;
and published a treatise in which he af-
firmed, that in these images there re-
sided an inherent sanctity, and that the
adoration of Christians ought not to be
confined to the persons represented by
these images, but extend to the images
themselves. The emperor assembled a
council at Constantinople, which deter-
nined that the images of Christ and of
the saints were to be honoured only with
a relative worship; and that the invoca-
ion and worship were to be addressed
to the saints only, as the servants of
Christ, and on account of their relation
to him as their master. Leo, dissatisfied
with these absurd and superstitious de-
cisions was sent into banishment. In the
western church, the worship of images
was disapproved, and opposed by seve-
ral considerable parties, as the Petro-
brussians, Albigenses, Waldenses, &c.
G g