decrees, and his revealed will in his covenant and promises. The root of his error seems to be this: he viewed the union between Christ and the believer to be of such a kind as actually to make a Saviour of the sinner, and a sinner of the Saviour. He speaks as if God considered the sinner as doing and suffering what Christ did and suffered; and Christ as having committed their sins, and as being actually guilty of them. See book under articles ANTINOMIANS and NEONOMIANS. Crisp's Sermons, edited by Dr. Gill; Bogue and Bennet's History of Dissenters, vol. i. p. 400.

rendered his schemes so suspicious, that he was not able to make great progress in his undertaking. The work was reserved for a meaner instrument. Peter, commonly called the Hermit, a native of Amiens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and being deeply affected with the dangers to which that act of piety now exposed the pilgrims, as well as with the oppression under which the eastern Christians now laboured, formed the bold, and, in all appearance, impracticable design of leading into Asia, from the farthest extremities of the West, armies CROISADE, or CRUSADE, may be sufficient to subdue those potent and applied to any war undertaken on pre-warlike nations that now held the holy tence of defending the cause of religion, but has been chiefly used for the expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the conquest of Palestine.

As

land in slavery. He proposed his scheme to pope Martin II. who, prudently resolving not to interpose his authority till he saw a probability of success, sumThese expeditions commenced A. D. moned at Placentia a council of 4000 1096. The foundation of them was a ecclesiastics and 30,000 seculars. superstitious veneration for those places no hall could be found large enough to where our Saviour performed his mi- contain such a multitude, the assembly racles, and accomplished the work of was held in a plain. Here the pope man's redemption. Jerusalem had been himself, as well as Peter, harangued the taken and Palestine conquered by people, representing the dismal situaOmar. This proved a considerable in- tion of their brethren in the East, and terruption to the pilgrims, who flocked the indignity offered to the Christian from all quarters to perform their de-name in allowing the holy city to revotions at the holy sepulchre. They had, however, still been allowed this liberty, on paying a small tribute to the Saracen caliphs, who were not much inclined to molest them. But, in 1064, this city changed its masters. The Turks took it from the Saracens; and being much more fierce and barbarous, the pilgrims now found they could no longer perform their devotions with the same safety. An opinion was about this time also prevalent in Europe, which made these pilgrimages much more frequent than formerly: it was imagined, that the 1000 years mentioned in Rev. xx. were fulfilled; that Christ was soon to make his appearance in Palestine to judge the world; and consequently that journeys to that country were in the highest degree meritorious, and even absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pilgrims who now flocked to Palestine meeting with a very rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy city, and derided the sacred mysteries of Christianity even in the place where they were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Christendom against the Mahometans; but his exorbitant encroachments upon the civil power of princes had created him so many enemies, and

main in the hands of the infidels. These speeches were so agreeable to those who heard them, that the whole multitude suddenly and violently declared for the war, and solemnly devoted themselves to perform this service, which they believed to be meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed to have embraced the design with ardour, Martin thought it neces sary, in order to obtain perfect success, to engage the greater and more warlike nations in the same enterprise. Having, therefore exhorted Peter to visit the chief cities and sovereigns of Christendom, he summoned another council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this great and pious design being now universally diffused, procured the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and princes; and when the pope and the hermit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly, as if impelled by immediate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, "It is the will of God!" These words were deemed so much the effect of a divine impulse, that they were employed as the signal of rendezvous and battle in all fature exploits of these adventurers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardour, and a cross was affixed to their right shoulder by all who enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this time

Europe was sunk in the most profound || committed by men inured to wickedignorance and superstition. The eccle-ness, encouraged by example, and imsiastics had gained the greatest ascend-pelled by necessity. The adventurers ant over the human mind; and the peo- were at last so numerous, that their saple who committed the most horrid gacious leaders became apprehensive crimes and disorders, knew of no other lest the greatness of the armament expiation than the observances imposed would be the cause of its own disap-. on them by their spiritual pastors. But pointment. For this reason they peramidst the abject superstition which mitted an undisciplined multitude, comnow prevailed, the military spirit had puted at 300,000 men, to go before them also universally diffused itself; and, under the command of Peter the herthough not supported by art or disci- mit, and Gautier or Walter, surnamed pline, was become the general passion" the moneyless, from his being a soldier of the nations governed by the feudal of fortune. These took the road towards law. All the great lords possessed the Constantinople through Hungary and right of peace and war. They were Bulgaria; and trusting that heaven, by engaged in continual hostilities with one supernatural assistance, would supply another: the open country was become all their necessities, they made no proa scene of outrage and disorder: the vision for subsistence in their march. cities, still mean and poor, were nother They son found themselves obliged to guarded by walls nor protected by pri- obtain by plunder what they vainly exvileges. Every man was obliged to de-pected from miracles: and the enraged pend for safety on his own force, or his inhabitants of the countries through private alliances; and valour was the which they passed attacked the disoronly excellence which was held in es-derly multitude, and slaughtered them teem, or gave one man the pre-eminence above another. When all the particular superstitions, therefore, were here united in one great object, the ardour for private hostilities took the same direction; "and all Europe," as the princess Anna Comnena expresses it, "torn from its foundations, seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia."

without resistance. The more disciplined armies followed after; and, passing the straits of Constantinople, were mustered in the plains of Asia, and amounted in the whole to 700,000 men. The princes engaged in this first crusade were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother to Philip I. king of France; Robert, duke of Normandy; Robert, earl of Flanders; Raimond, earl of Toulouse All ranks of men now deeming the and St. Giles; the celebrated Godfrey croisades the only road to heaven, were of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, with his impatient to open the way with their brothers Baldwin and Eustace; Steswords to the holy city. Nobles, arti- phen, earl of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, zans, peasants, even priests, enrolled count of St. Paul; with many other their names; and to decline this service lords. The general rendezvous was at was branded with the reproach of im- Constantinople. In this expedition, Godpiety or cowardice. The nobles were frey besieged and took the city of Nice. moved, by the romantic spirit of the Jerusalem was taken by the confedeage, to hope for opulent establishments rated army, and Godfrey chosen king. in the East, the chief seat of arts and The Christians gained the famous batcommerce at that time. In pursuit of tle of Ascalon against the Sultan of these chimerical projects, they sold at Egypt, which put an end to the first low prices their ancient castles and in- crusade, but not to the spirit of cruheritances, which had now lost all value sading. The rage continued for near two in their eyes. The infirm and aged con- centuries. The second crusade, in 1144, tributed to the expedition by presents was headed by the emperor Conrad III. and money, and many of them attended and Louis VII. king of France. The it in person; being determined, if possi- emperor's army was either destroyed ble to breathe their last in sight of that by the enemy, or perished through the city where their Saviour died for them. treachery of Manuel, the Greek empeEven women, concealing their sex un- ror; and the second army, through the der the disguise of armour, attended the unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, camp; and often forgot their duty still was forced to break up the siege of Damore, by prostituting themselves to the mascus. The third crusade, in 1188, imarmy. The greatest criminals were for-mediately followed the taking of Jeruward in a service which they considered as an expiation for all crimes; and the most enormous disorders were, during the course of these expeditions,

salem by Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedition were, the emperor Frederic Barbarossa; Frederic, duke of Suabia, his second

was always worsted, desired peace, which was granted upon conditions advantageous to the Christians; after which both princes embarked to their own kingdoms. Prince Edward, of England, who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, sailed towards Ptolemais, where he landed a small body of 300 English and French, and hindered Bendochar from laying siege to Ptolemais: but being obliged to return to take possession of the crown of England, this croisade ended without contributing any thing to the recovery of the holy land. In 1291, the town of Acre or Ptolemais was taken and plundered by the sultan of Egypt, and the Christians quite driven out of Syria. There has been no croisade since that period, though several popes have attempted to stir up the Christians to such an undertaking; particularly Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311.

son; Leopold, duke of Austria; Ber-serably butchered, and himself and the thold, duke of Moravia; Herman, mar- nobility taken prisoners. A truce was quis of Baden; the counts of Nassau, agreed upon for ten years, and the king Thuringia, Missen, and Holland; and and lords set at liberty. The eighth above sixty other princes of the em- croisade, in 1279, was headed by the pire; with the bishops of Besançon, same prince, who made himself master Cambray, Munster, Osnaburg, Missen, of the port and castle of Carthage in Passau, Visburg, and several others. In Africa; but dying a short time after, he this expedition the emperor Frederic left his army in a very ill condition. defeated the Sultan of Iconium: his son Soon after, the king of Sicily coming up Frederic, joined by Guy Lusignon, king with a good fleet, and joining Philip the of Jerusalem, in vain endeavoured to bold, son and successor of Lewis, the take Acre or Ptolemais. During these king of Tunis, after several engage transactions, Philip Augustus, king ofments with the Christians, in which he France, and Richard I. king of England, joined the croisade: by which means the Christian army consisted of 300,000 fighting men; but great disputes happening between the kings of France and England, the former quitted the holy land, and Richard concluded a peace with Saladin. The fourth croisade was undertaken in 1195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin's death. In this expedition the Christians gained several battles against the infidels, took a great many towns, and were in the way of success, when the death of the emperor obliged them to quit the holy land, and return into Germany. The fifth croisade was published by pope Innocent III. in 1198. Those engaged in it made fruitless efforts for the recovery of the holy land: for, though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after Simon of Montfort, Renard of Dampierre, and others, yet the plague de- Though these croisades were effects stroying many of them, and the rest of the most absurd superstition, they either returning, or engaging in the tended greatly to promote the good of petty quarrels of the Christian princes, Europe. Multitudes, indeed, were dethere was nothing done; so that the stroyed. M. Voltaire computes the sultan of Aleppo easily defeated their people who perished in the different troops in 1204. The sixth croisade be-expeditions at upwards of two millions. gan in 1228; in which the Christians Many there were, however, who retook the town of Damietta, but were turned; and these having conversed so forced to surrender it again. In 1229, long with people who lived in a much the emperor Frederic made peace with more magnificent way than themselves, the sultan for ten years. About 1240, began to entertain some taste for a reRichard, earl of Cornwall, brother to fined and polished way of life. Thus Henry III. king of England, arrived at the barbarism in which Europe had Palestine, at the head of the English been so long immersed began to wear croisade; but finding it most advan- off soon after. The princes also who tageous to conclude a peace, he re- remained at home, found means to avail embarked, and steered towards Italy. themselves of the frenzy of the people. In 1244, the Karasmians being driven By the absence of such numbers of out of Turkey by the Tartars, broke restless and martial adventurers, peace into Palestine, and gave the Christians was established in their dominions. a general defeat near Gaza. The se- They also took the opportunity of anventh croisade was headed, in 1249, bynexing to their crowns many considerSt. Lewis, who took the town of Damíetta; but a sickness happening in the Christian army, the king endeavoured a retreat; in which, being pursued by the infidels, most of his army were mi

able fiefs, either by purchase, or the extinction of the heirs; and thus the mischiefs which must always attend feudal governments were considerably lessened. With regard to the bad suc

CROISIERS, a religious order, founded in honour of the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed in several parts of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohemia; those of Italy were suppressed even before the late revolutions. These religious follow the rule of St. Augustine. They had in England the name of Crouched Friars.

cess of the croisaders, it was scarcely they see their parents engaged in. possible that any other thing could hap- Their childish folly was encouraged by pen to them. The emperors of Constan- the monks and schoolmasters; and tinople, instead of assisting, did all in thousands of those innocents were contheir power to disconcert their schemes: ducted from the houses of their parents they were jealous, and not without rea- on the superstitious interpretation of son, of such an inundation of barbarians. these words: "Out of the mouths of Yet, had they considered their true in- babes and sucklings hast thou perfected terest, they would rather have assisted praise." Their base conductors sold a them, or at least stood neuter, than part of them to the Turks, and the rest enter into alliances with the Turks. perished miserably. Hume's Hist. of They followed the latter method, how-England, vol. i. p. 292, &c. and vol. ii. ever, and were often of very great dis- p. 280; Enc. Brit. and Mosheim's Ecc. service to the western adventurers, Hist. which at last occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst enemies the croisaders had were their own internal feuds and dissentions. They neither could agree while marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor could they unite their conquests under one government after they had made them. They set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch, and another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made war upon CROSIER, or CROZIER, a shepherd's each other, and on the Greek empe- crook; a symbol of pastoral authority, rors; and thus became an easy prey to consisting of a gold or silver staff, crookthe common enemy. The horrid cruel-ed at the top, carried occasionally beties they committed, too, must have fore bishops and abbots, and held in the inspired the Turks with the most in-hand when they give the solemn benevincible hatred against thom, and made dictions. them resist with the greatest obstinacy. CROSS, in Scripture language, means They were such as could have been the sufferings of Christ, Gal. vi. 14. committed only by barbarians inflamed The sufferings, trials, or persecutions with the most bigoted enthusiasm. of the people are also called a cross, When Jerusalem was taken, not only Matt. xvi. 24. Cross signifies also a the numerous garrisons were put to the || gibbet, made with two pieces of wood, sword, but the inhabitants were massa-placed crosswise, whether they cross cred without mercy and without dis- with right angles at the top like a T, tinction. No age or sex was spared, or in the middle of their length like an not even sucking children. According X. The cross to which our Saviour to Voltaire, some Christians, who had was fastened, and on which he died, been suffered by the Turks to live in was of the former kind; being thus rethat city, led the conquerors into the presented by old monuments, coins, and most private caves, where women had crosses. The death of the cross was concealed themselves with their chil- the most dreadful of all others, both for dren, and not one of them was suffered the shame and pain of it; and so scanto escape. What eminently shows the dalous, that it was inflicted as the last enthusiasm by which these conquerors mark of detestation upon the vilest of were animated, is, their behaviour after|| people. It was the punishment of robthis terrible slaughter. They marched ||bers and murderers, provided that they over heaps of dead bodies towards the were slaves too; but otherwise, if they holy sepulchre; and while their hands were free, and had the privilege of the were polluted with the blood of so many city of Rome, this was then thought a innocent persons, sung anthems to the prostitution of that honour, and too incommon Saviour of Mankind! Nay, so famous a punishment for such a one, far did their religious enthusiasm over- let his crimes be what they would. The come their fury, that these ferocious form of a cross being such as has been conquerors now burst into tears. If the already described, the body of the criabsurdity and wickedness of their con-minal was fastened to the upright piece duct can be exceeded by any thing, it must be by what follows. In 1204, the frenzy of croisading seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what

by nailing the feet to it, and on the other transverse piece generally by nailing the hands on each side. Now, because these parts of the body, being

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the instruments of action and motion, [] sometimes with three. The criminal are provided by Nature with a much was fixed to the cross quite naked; and, greater quantity of nerves than others in all probability, the Saviour of sinners have occasion for; and because all sen- was not used with any greater tendersation is performed by the spirit con- ness than others upon whom this putained in the nerves; it will follow, as nishment was inflicted. The text of the Stanhope observes, that wherever they Gospel shows clearly that Jesus Christ abound, the sense of pain must needs in was fastened to the cross with nails; proportion be more quick and tender. and the Psalmist (Ps. xxii. 16.) had The Jews confess, indeed, that they foretold long before, that they should crucified people in their nation, but pierce his hands and his feet; but there deny that they inflicted this punishment are great disputes concerning the numupon any one alive. They first put ber of these nails. The Greeks reprethem to death, and then fastened them sent our Saviour as fastened to the cross to the cross, either by the hands or with four nails; in which particular neck. But there are indisputable proofs Gregory of Tours agrees with them, of their crucifying men frequently alive. one on each hand and foot. But several The worshippers of Baal-peor, and the are of opinion that our Saviour's hands king of Ai were hung up alive; as were and feet were pierced with three nails also the descendants of Saul, who were only, viz. one on each hand, and one put into the hands of the Gibeonites, through both his feet: and the custom 2 Sam. xxi. 9. of the Latins is rather for this last opinion; for the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our Saviour's arms were besides bound fast to the cross with chains; and St. Hilary speaks of the cords wherewith he was tied to it. Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross lived a good while in that condition. St. Andrew is believed to have continued three days alive upon it. Eusebius speaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were kept upon the cross till they were starved to death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ's dying so soon, because naturally he must have lived longer, if it had not been in his power to have laid down his life, and to take it up again. The thighs of the two thieves, who were crucified with our Saviour, were broken, in order to hasten their death, that their bodies might not remain upon the cross on the Sabbath day, John xix. 31, 33; and to comply with the law of Moses, which forbids the bodies to be left there after sun-set. But, among other nations, tney were suffered to remain upon the cross a long time. Sometimes they were devoured alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards were appointed to observe that none of their friends or relations should take them down and bury them. The Roman soldiers, who had crucified Jesus Christ and the two thieves, continued near the crosses till the bodies were taken down and buried.

Before crucifixion, the criminal was generally scourged with cords; sometimes little bones, or pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, so that the condemned person might suffer more severely. It was also a custom, that he who was to be crucified should bear his own cross to the place of execution. After this manner, we find Christ was compelled to bear his cross; and as he sunk under the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained to bear it after him and with him. But whereas it is generally supposed that our Lord bore the whole cross, i. e. the long and transverse part both, this seems to be a thing impossible; and therefore Lipsius (in his treatise De Supplicio Crucis) has set the matter in a true light, when he tells us that Jesus only carried the transverse beam; because the long beam, or the body of the cross, was either fixed in the ground before, or made ready to be set up as soon as the prisoner came; and from hence he observes, that painters are very much mistaken in the description of our Saviour carrying the whole cross. There were several ways of crucifying; sometimes the criminal was fastened with cords to a tree, sometimes he was crucified with his head downwards. This way, it is said, Peter chose, out of respect to his master, Jesus Christ, not thinking himself worthy to be crucified like him; though the common way of crucifying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both feet, or one through each of them; for this was not always performed in the same manner; the ancients sometimes represent Jesus Christ crucified with four nails, and

Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast solemnized on the 3d of May, in memory of St. Helena's (the mother of Constantine) finding the true cross of Christ deep in the ground on Mount Calvary, where she erected a church for the preservation of part of it; the