bull, in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansenius. However, the Jansenists affirmed that these propositions were not to be found in this book; but that some of his enemies having caused them to be printed on a sheet, inserted them in the book, and thereby deceived the pope. At last Clement XI. put an end to the dispute by his constitution of July 17, 1705, in which, after having recited the constitutions of his predecessors in relation to this affair, he declared, "That, in order to pay a proper obedience to the papal constitutions concerning the present question, it is necessary to receive them with a respectful silence." The clergy of Paris, the same year, approved and accepted this bull, and none dared to oppose it. This is the famous bull Unigenitus, so called from its beginning with the words, Unigenitus Dei Filius, &c. which has occasioned so much confusion in France.

In the year 1640, the two universities just mentioned, and particularly father Molina and father Leonard Celsus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Jesuits on grace and free will. This having set the controversy on foot, Jansenius opposed to the doctrine of the Jesuits the sentiments of St. Augustine, and wrote a treatise on grace which he entitled Augustinus. This treatise was attacked by the Jesuits, who accused Jansenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opinions; and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of Pope Urban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatise wrote by Jansenius; when the partisans of Jansenius gave out that this bull was spurious, and composed by a person entirely devoted to the Jesuits. After the death of Urban VIII. the affair of Jansenism began to be more warmly controverted, and gave birth to a great number of polemical writings concerning grace; and what occasioned some mirth, were the titles which each party It was not only on account of their gave to their writings: one writer pub- embracing the doctrines of Augustine, lished the Torch of St. Augustine; that the Jesuits were so imbittered another found Snuffers of St. Augus- against them; but that which offended tine's Torch; and father Veron formed the Jesuits, and the other creatures of A Gag for the Jansenists, &c. In the the Roman pontiff, was, their strict year 1650, sixty-eight bishops of France piety, and severe moral discipline. The subscribed a letter to pope Innocent X. Jansenists cried out against the corrupto obtain an inquiry into and condemna- tions of the church of Rome, and comtion of the five following propositions, plained that neither its doctrines nor extracted from Jansenius's Augustinus: morals retained any traces of their for1. Some of God's commandments are mer purity. They reproached the clergy impossible to be observed by the righ- with an universal depravation of sentiteous, even though they endeavour with ments and manners, and an entire forall their power to accomplish them.- getfulness of the dignity of their cha2. In the state of corrupted nature, we racter and the duties of their vocation; are incapable of resisting inward grace. they censured the licentiousness of the -3. Merit and demerit, in a state of monastic orders, and insisted upon the corrupted nature, do not depend on a necessity of reforming their discipline liberty which excludes necessity, but on according to the rules of sanctity, aba liberty which excludes constraint.-4. stinence, and self-denial, that were oriThe Semi-pelagians admitted the ne- ginally prescribed by their respective cessity of an inward preventing grace founders. They maintained, also, that for the performance of each particular the people ought to be carefully inact, even for the beginning of faith; structed in all the doctrines and prebut they were heretics in maintaining cepts of Christianity; and that, for this that this grace was of such a nature that purpose, the Holy Scriptures and pubthe will of man was able either to re- lic liturgies should be offered to their sist or obey it.-5. It is Semi-pelagian-perusal in their mother tongue; and, ism to say, that Jesus Christ died, or shed his blood, for all mankind in general.

finally, they looked upon it as a matter of the highest moment to persuade all Christians that true piety did not consist in the observance of pompous rites, or in the performance of external acts of devotion, but in inward holiness and divine love.

Notwithstanding the above-mentioned sentiments, the Jansenists have been accused of superstition and fanaticism; and, on account of their severe discipline and practice, have been denomi

nated Rigourists. It is said, that they fed by a revolution, which, in 713, demade repentance consist chiefly in those prived Bardanes of the imperial throne. voluntary sufferings which the trans- The dispute, however, broke out with gressor inflicted upon himself, in pro- redoubled fury under Leo the Isaurian, portion to the nature of his crimes and who issued out an edict in the year 726, the degree of his guilt. They tortured abrogating, as some say, the worship of and macerated their bodies by painful images; and ordering all the images, labour, excessive abstinence, continual except that of Christ's crucifixion, to be prayer, and contemplation: nay, they removed out of the churches; but, accarried these austerities, it is said, to so cording to others, this edict only prohigh a pitch, as to place merit in them, hibiting the paying to them any kind of and to consider those as the sacred vic- || adoration or worship. This edict occatims of repentance who had gradually sioned a civil war, which broke out in put an end to their days by their exces- the islands of the Archipelago, and, by sive abstinence and labour. Dr. Haweis, the suggestions of the priests and monks, however, in his Church History, (vol. ravaged a part of Asia, and afterwards iii. p. 46,) seems to form a more favour- reached Italy. The civil commotions able opinion of them. "I do not," says and insurrections in Italy were chiefly he, "readily receive the accusations promoted by the Roman pontiffs, Grethat Papists or Protestants have object- gory I. and II. Leo was excommunicaed to them, as over rigorous and fana- ted; and his subjects in the Italian protic in their devotion; but I will admit vinces violated their allegiance, and many things might be blameable: a rising in arms, either massacred or tincture of popery might drive them to banished all the emperor's deputies and push monkish austerities too far, and officers. In consequence of these prosecretly to place some merit in mortifi- ceedings, Leo assembled a council at cation, which they in general disclaim- Constantinople in 730, which degraded ed; yet, with all that can be said, surely Germanus, bishop of that city, who was the root of the matter was in them. a patron of images; and he ordered all When I read Jansenius, or his disciples the images to be publicly burnt, and inPascal or Quesnel, I bow before such flicted a variety of severe punishments distinguished excellencies, and confess upon such as were attached to that idothem my brethren; shall I say my fa- latrous worship. Hence arose two facthers? Their principles are pure and tions, one of which adopted the adoraevangelical; their morals formed upon tion and worship of images, and on that the apostles and prophets; and their account were called iconoduli or incozeal to amend and convert, blessed with nolatræ; and the other maintained that eminent success." such worship was unlawful, and that IBERIANS, a denomination of east-nothing was more worthy the zeal of ern Christians, which derive their name from Iberia, a province of Asia now called Georgia: hence they are also called Georgians. Their tenets are said to be the same with those of the Greek church; which see.

Christians than to demolish and destroy those statues and pictures which were the occasion of this gross idolatry; and hence they were distinguished by the titles of icono-machi (from w image, and pax, I contend) and iconoclastæ. ICONOCLASTES, or ICONOCLAS- The zeal of Gregory II. in favour of TÆ, breakers of images: a name which image worship was not only irritated, the church of Rome gives to all who re- but even surpassed, by his successor ject the use of images in religious mat- Gregory III. in consequence of which ters. The word is Greek, formed from the Italian provinces were torn from the Ex imago, and Maori rumpere, "to Grecian empire. Constantine, called break." In this sense not only the re- Copronimus, in 754, convened a council formed, but some of the eastern church at Constantinople, regarded by the cs, are called iconoclastes, and esteemed Greeks as the seventh ecumenical by them heretics, as opposing the wor- council, which solemnly condemned the ship of the images of God and the saints, worship and use of images. Those who, and breaking their figures and repre-notwithstanding this decree of the counsentations in churches.

The opposition to images began in Greece, under the reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the Greeks || a little after the commencement of the eighth century, when the worship of them became common. See IMAGE. But the tumults occasioned by it were quell

cil, raised commotions in the state, were severely punished, and new laws were enacted to set bounds to the violence of monastic rage. Leo IV. who was declared emperor in 775, pursued the same measures, and had recourse to the coer cive influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry out of the Christian

Church. Irene, the wife of Leo, poison- || Orthodoxy. The Latins were generally ed her husband in 780; assumed the of opinion that images might be sufferreins of the empire during the minority ed, as the means of aiding the memory of her son Constantine; and in 786 sum- of the faithful, and of calling to their remoned a council at Nice, in Bithynia, membrance the pious exploits and virknown by the name of the Second Ni-tuous actions of the persons whom they cene Council, which abrogated the laws represented; but they detested all and decrees against the new idolatry, thoughts of paying them the least marks restored the worship of images and of of religious homage or adoration. The the cross, and denounced severe punish- council of Paris assembled in 824 by ments against those who maintained that Louis the Meek, resolved to allow the God was the only object of religious ado- use of images in the churches, but seration. In this contest the Britons, Ger- verely prohibited rendering them relimans, and Gauls, were of opinion that gious worship: nevertheless, towards images might be lawfully continued in the conclusion of this century, the Galchurches; but they considered the wor- lican clergy began to pay a kind of reship of them as highly injurious and of-ligious homage to the images of saints, fensive to the Supreme Being. Charlemagne distinguished himself as a mediator in this controversy: he ordered four books concerning images to be composed, refuting the reasons urged by the Nicene bishops to justify the worship of images, which he sent to Adrian, the Romeu pontiff, in 790, in order to engage him to withdraw his approbation of the decrees of the last council of Nice. Adrian wrote an answer; and in 794 a council of 500 bishops, assembled by Charlemagne, at Francfort, on the Maine, confirmed the opinion contained in the four books, and solemnly condemned the worship of images.

and their example was followed by the Germans and other nations. However, the Iconoclastes still had their adherents among the Latins; the most eminent of whom was Claudius, bishop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all images, and even the crosses to be cast out of the churches, and committed to the flames; and he wrote a treatise, in which he declared both against the use and worship of them. He condemned relics, pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and all voyages to the tombs of saints; and to his writing and labours it was owing, that the city of Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time after his death, In the Greek church, after the banish- much less infected with superstition ment of Irene, the controversy concern- than the other parts of Europe. The ing images broke out anew, and was car- controversy concerning the sanctity of ried on by the contending parties, during images was again revived by Leo, bishop the half of the ninth century, with vari- of Chalcedon: in the 11th century, on ous and uncertain success. The empe- occasion of the emperor Alexius's conror Nicephorus appears upon the whole verting the figures of silver that adorned to have been an enemy to this idolatrous the portals of the churches into money, worship. His successor, Michael Curo- in order to supply the exigencies of the palates, surnamed Rhangabe, patroni- state. The bishop obstinately maintainzed and encouraged it. But the scene ed that he had been guilty of sacrilege; changed on the accession of Leo, the and published a treatise in which he afArmenian, to the empire, who assem- firmed, that in these images there rebled a council at Constantinople, in 812, sided an inherent sanctity, and that the that abolished the decrees of the Nicene adoration of Christians ought not to be council. His successor, Michael, sur- confined to the persons represented by named Balbus, disapproved of the wor- these images, but extend to the images ship of images, and his son Theophilus, themselves. The emperor assembled a treated them with great severity. How- council at Constantinople, which deterever, the empress Theodora, after his mined that the images of Christ and of death, and during the minority of her the saints were to be honoured only with son, assembled a council at Constantino- a relative worship; and that the invocaple in 842, which reinstated the decrees tion and worship were to be addressed of the second Nicene council, and en- to the saints only, as the servants of couraged image worship by a law. The Christ, and on account of their relation council held at the same place under to him as their master. Leo, dissatisfied Protius, in 879, and reckoned by the with these absurd and superstitious deGreeks the eighth general council, con- cisions, was sent into banishment. In the firmed and renewed the Nicene de- western church, the worship of images crees. In commemoration of this coun- was disapproved, and opposed by sevecil, a festival was instituted by the su- ral considerable parties, as the Petroperstitious Greeks, called the Feast of brussians, Albigenses, Waldenses, &c. Gg

JEHOVAH, one of the Scripture names of God, and peculiar to him, signifying the Being who is self-existent, and gives existence to others. The name is also given to Christ, Is. xl. 3. and is a proof of his godhead, Matt. iii. 3. Is. vi. John xii. 41. The Jews had so great a veneration for this name, that they left off the custom of pronouncing it, whereby its true pronunciation was forgotten. They believe that whosoever knows the true pronunciation of it cannot fail to be heard of God.

Chaldeans, Romans, Chinese, &c. a whit less absurd. Some violated the most natural affections by murdering multitudes of their neighbours and children, under pretence of sacrificing them to their god. Some nations of Germany, Scandinavia, and Tartary, imagined that violent death in war, or by self-murder, was the proper method of access to the future enjoyment of their gods. In far later times, about 64,080 persons were sacrificed at the dedication of one idolatrous temple in the space of four days in America. The Hebrews never had any idols of their own, but they adopted those of the nations around. The vencration which the Papists pay to the Virgin Mary, and other saints and angels, and to the bread in the sacrament, the cross, relics, and images, lays a founda-gested, as he gave out, by the immediate tion for the Protestants to charge them with idolatry, though they deny the charge. It is evident that they worship them, and that they justify the worship, but deny the idolatry of it, by distinguishing subordinate from supreme worship: the one they call latria, the other dulia: but this distinction is thought by many of the Protestants to be vain, futile, and nugatory.

JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus; a famous religious order of the Romish Church, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight, in the sixteenth century. The plan which this fanatic formed of its constitution and laws, was sug

inspiration of Heaven. But, notwithstanding this high pretension, his design met at first with violent opposition. The pope, to whom Loyola had applied for the sanction of his authority to confirm the institution, referred his petition to a committee of cardinals. They represented the establishment to be unnecessary as well as dangerous, and Paul refused to grant his approbation of it. At last, Idolatry has been divided into meta-Loyola removed all his scruples, by an phorical and proper. By metaphorical idolatry, is meant that inordinate love of riches, honours, and bodily pleasures, whereby the passions and appetites of men are made superior to the will of God; man, by so doing, making a god of himself and his sensual temper. Proher idolatry is giving the divine honour to another. The objects or idols of that honour which are given are either personal, i. e. the idolatrous themselves, who become their own statues; or internal, as false ideas, which are set up in the fancy instead of God, such as fancying God to be a light, flame, matter, &c. only here, the scene being internal, the scandal of the sin is thereby abated; or external, as worshipping angels, the || sun, stars, animals, &c. Tenison on Idolatry; A. Young on Idolatrous Corruptions; Ridgley's Body of Div. qu. 106. Fell's Idolatry of Greece and Rome; Stilling fleet's Idolatry of the Church of Rome; Jortin's Ser. vol. vi.

offer which it was impossible for any pope to resist. He proposed, that besides the three vows of poverty, of chas tity, and of monastic obedience, which are common to all the orders of regulars, the members of his society should take a fourth vow of obedience to the pope, binding themselves to go whithersoever he should command for the service of religion, and without requiring any thing from the holy see for their support. At a time when the papal authority had received such a shock by the revolt of so many nations from the Romish church, at a time when every part of the popish system was attacked with so much violence and success, the acquisition of a body of men, thus peculiarly devoted to the see of Rome, and whom it might set in opposition to all its enemies, was an object of the highest consequence. Paul, instantly perceiving this, confirmed the institution of the Jesuits by his bull; granted the most ample privileges to the members of the society, and appointed Loyola to be the first general of the order. The event fully justified Paul's discernment in expecting such beneficial consequences to the see of Rome from this institution. In less than half a century the society obtained establishments in every country that adhered to the Roman Catholic church; its power and wealth increased