image of God, Gen. 1. 2. it may refer to || New-house, was erected in Lincolnthe God-man, to Christ in his pre-ex- shire, by Peter de Saulia, and dedicated istent state. God says, Let us make to St. Martial. In the reign of Edward man in our image, after our likeness. I. this order had twenty-seven monasteThe word is redoubled, perhaps to inti-ries in England. mate that Adam was made in the likeness of the human soul of Christ, as well as that he bore something of the image and resemblance of the divine nature.

PRESBYTER. See next article; and articles DEACON, ELDER.

PRESBYTERIANS. The title Presbyterian comes from the Greek word On the other side it is affirmed, that IperBurepos, which signifies senior or elthis doctrine of the pre-existence of the der, intimating that the government of human soul of Christ weakens and sub- the church in the New Testament was verts that of his personality. 1. A pure by presbyteries, that is, by association intelligent spirit, say they, the first, the of ministers and ruling elders, possessed most ancient, and the most excellent of all of equal powers, without any supecreatures, created before the founda- riority among them, either in office or tion of the world, so exactly resembles order. The Presbyterians believe, that the second person of the Arian trinity, the authority of their ministers to preach that it is impossible to show the least the Gospel, to administer the sacradifference, except in name.-2. The ments of baptism and the Lord's suppre-existent intelligence supposed in per, and to feed the flock of Christ, is this doctrine, is so confounded with derived from the Holy Ghost by the those other intelligences called angels, imposition of the hands of the presbythat there is great danger of mistaking tery; and they oppose the independent this human soul for an angel, and so of scheme of the common rights of Chrismaking the person of Christ to consist tians by the same arguments which are of three natures.-3. If Jesus Christ used for that purpose by the Episcopahad nothing in common like the rest of lians. They affirm, however, that there mankind except a body, how could this is no order in the church as established semi-conformity make him a real man? by Christ and his apostles superior to -4. The passages quoted in proof of that of presbyters; that all ministers the pre-existence of the human soul of being ambassadors of Christ, are equal Jesus Christ are of the same sort with by their commission; that presbyter those which others allege in proof of and bishop, though different words, are the pre-existence of all human souls. of the same import; and that prelacy 5. This opinion, by ascribing the dignity was gradually established upon the príof the work of redemption to this sub-mitive practice of making the moderator lime human soul, detracts from the deity or speaker of the presbytery a permaof Christ, and renders the last as pas-nent officer. sive as the first active.-6. This notion These positions they maintain against is contrary to Scripture. St. Paul says, in all things it beloved him to be made like his brethren: he partook of all our infirmities, except sin. St. Luke says, he increased in stature and in wisdom, Heb. ii. 17. Luke, ii. 52. See articles JESUS CHRIST, and INDWELLING SCHEME; Robinson's Claude, vol. i. p. 214, 311; Watts's Works, vol. v. p. 274, 385; Gill's Body of Div. vol. ii. p. 51; Robinson's Plea, p. 140; Fleming's Christology; Simpson's Apology for the Trin. p. 190; Hawker's Ser. on the Divinity of Christ, p. 44, 45.

the Episcopalians by the following Scriptural arguments.-They observe, That the apostles planted churches by ordaining bishops and deacons in every city; that the ministers which in one verse are called bishops, are in the next perhaps denominated presbyters; that we no where read in the New Testament of bishops, presbyters, and deacons, in any one church; and that, therefore, we are under the necessity of concluding bishop and presbyter to be two names for the same church officer. This is apparent from Peter's exPREMONSTRANTES, or PRE- hortation to the elders or presbyters who MONSTRATENSES, a religious order of were among the Jewish Christians. regular canons, instituted in 1120 by S. The elders (presbyters) which are Norbert, and thence called Norber-among you I exhort, who am also an tines. The rule they followed was that of St. Augustine with some slight alterations, and an addition of certain severe laws, whose authority did not long survive their founder.

They first came into England A. D. 1146. Their first monastery, called

elder, and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that shall be revealed: feed the flock of God which is among you, taking the oversight thereof, (επισκοπούντες acting as bishops thereof,) not by constraint, but willingly; not for filthy lucre, but of a

ready mind; neither as being LORDS over God's heritage, but being ensamples to the flock, 1 Pet. v. 2, 3. From this passage it is evident that the presbyters not only fed the flock of God, but also governed that flock with episcopal powers; and that the apostle himself, as a church officer, was nothing more than a presbyter or elder. The identity of the office of bishop and presbyter is still more apparent from Heb. xiii. 7, 17. and 1 Thess. v. 12; for the bishops are there represented as governing the flock, speaking to them the word of God, watching for their souls, and discharging various offices, which it is impossible for any man to perform to more than one congregation.

at all seasons. And now, I know tha? ye all, among whom I have gone preaching the kingdom of God, shall see my face no more. Wherefore I take you to record this day, that I am pure from the blood of all men. For I have not shunned to declare unto you all the counsel of God. Take heed, therefore, unto yourselves, and to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made you overseers (EIGOTOus, bishops,) to feed the church of God, which he hath purchased with his own blood. For I know this, that after my departure shall grievous wolves enter in among you, not sparing the flock. Also of your own selves shall men arise, speaking perverse things, to draw away disciples after them. Therefore watch, and remember that, by the space of three years, I ceased not to warn every one night and day with tears. And now, brethren, I commend you to God, and to the word of his grace,' &c.

"From the last cited text it is evident that the bishops (goolaμevous) of the Thessalonian churches had the pastoral care of no more souls than they could hold personal communion with in God's worship; for they were such as all the people were to know, esteem, "From this passage it is evident that and love, as those that not only were there was in the city of Ephesus a pluover them, but also closely laboured rality of pastors of equal authority, among them, and admonished them.' without any superior pastor or bishop But diocesan bishops, whom ordinarily over them; for the apostle directs his the hundredth part of their flock never discourse to them all in common, and hear nor see, cannot be those bishops gives them equal power over the whole by whom that flock is admonished; nor flock. Dr. Hammond, indeed, imagines, can they be what Peter requires the bi- that the elders whom Paul called to Mishops of the Jewish converts to be, en- letus, were the bishops of Asia, and samples to the flock. It is the opinion that he sent for them to Ephesus, beof Dr. Hammond, who was a very learn- cause that city was the metropolis of ed divine, and a zealot for episcopacy, this province. But, were this opinion that the elders whom the apostle James well founded, it is not conceivable that desires (Jam, v. 14.) the sick to call for, the sacred writer would have called were of the highest permanent order of them the elders of the church of Epheecclesiastical officers; but it is self-evi- || sus, but the elders of the church in dent that those elders cannot have been general, or the elders of the churches in diocesan bishops, otherwise the sick Asia. Besides, it is to be remembered, must have been often without the reach that the apostle was in such haste to be of the remedy proposed to them. at Jerusalem, that the sacred historian measures his time by days; whereas it must have required several months to call together the bishops or elders of all the cities of Asia; and he might certainly have gone to meet them at Ephesus in less time than would be requisite for their meeting in that city, and proceeding thence to him at Miletus. They must therefore have been either the joint pastors of one congregation, or the pastors of different congregations in one city; and as it was thus in Ephesus, so it was in Philippi; for we find the apostle addressing his epistle to all the saints in Jesus Christ which are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons.' From the passage before us it is likewise plain, that the presbyters of Ephesus had not only the name, but the whole power of bishops given to them

"There is nothing in Scripture upon which the Episcopalian is more ready to rest his cause than the alleged episcopacy of Timothy and Titus, of whom the former is said to have been bishop of Ephesus, and the latter bishop of Crete; yet the Presbyterian thinks it is clear as the noon-day sun, that the presbyters of Ephesus were supreme governors, under Christ, of the Ephesian churches, at the very time that Timothy is pretended to have been their proper diocesan.

"In Acts, xx. 17, &c. we read, that 'from Miletus Paul sent to Ephesus, and called the elders (presbyters) of the church. And when they were come to him, he said unto them, Ye know, from the first day that I came into Asia, after what manner I have been with you

diate call by Christ, their infallibility, for the establishment of an episcopal or their being witnesses of our Lord's re- a presbyterian form: the former model surrection, and their unlimited juris- of ecclesiastical polity was patronised diction over the whole world. These by the house of Stuart on account of the powers and privileges could not be con- support which it gave to the prerogaveyed by imposition of hands to any suc- tives of the crown; the latter was the cessors, whether called presbyters or favourite of the majority of the people, bishops; but as rulers or office-bearers perhaps not so much on account of its in particular churches, we have the superior claim to apostolical institution, confession of the very chiefest apos- as because the laity are mixed with the tles,' Peter and John, that they were clergy in church judicatories, and the nothing more than presbyters, or pa- two orders, which under episcopacy are rish ministers. This being the case, the kept so distinct, incorporated, as it were, dispute which has been so warmly agi- into one body. In the Scottish church, tated concerning the validity of Presby- every regulation of public worship, terian ordination may be soon decided; every act of discipline, and every ecfor if the ceremony of ordination be at clesiastical censure, which in other all essential, it is obvious that such a churches flows from the authority of a ceremony performed by presbyters must diocesan bishop, or from a convocation be valid, as there is no higher order of of the clergy, is the joint work of a ecclesiastics in the church by whom it certain number of clergymen and laycan be performed. Accordingly we men acting together with equal authorifind, that Timothy himself, though said | ty, and deciding every question by a pluto be a bishop, was ordained by the lay-rality of voices. The laymen who thus ing on of the hands of a presbytery. At that ordination, indeed, St. Paul presided, but he could preside only as primus in paribus; for we have seen that, as permanent officers in the church of Christ, the apostles themselves were no more than presbyters. If the apostles' hands were imposed for any other purpose, it must have been to communicate those charismuta, or miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit, which were then so frequent; but which no modern presbyter or bishop will pretend to give, unless his understanding be clouded by the grossest ignorance, or perverted by the most frantic enthusiasm."

form an essential part of the ecclesiastical courts of Scotland are called ruling elders, and hold the same office, as well as the same name, with those brethren (Acts xv.) who joined with the apostles and elders at Jerusalem in determining the important question concerning the necessity of imposing upon the Gentile converts the tual observances of the law of Moses. These lay-elders Paul enjoined Timothy, (1 Tim. v. 17.) to account worthy of double honour, if they should rule well, and discharge the du ties for which they were separated from the multitude of their brethren. In the church of Scotland every parish has two or three of those lay-elders, who are grave and serious persons chosen from among the heads of families, of known orthodoxy, and steady adherence to the worship, discipline, and government of the church. Being solemnly engaged to use their utmost endeavours for the Their doctrines are Calvinistic, as suppression of vice and the cherishing may be seen in the confession of faith, of piety and virtue, and to exercise disand the larger and shorter catechisms; cipline faithfully and diligently, the mithough it is supposed that the clergy,nister, in the presence of the congregawhen composing instructions, either for their respective parishes, or the public at large, are no more fettered by the confession, than the clergy of the church of England are by the thirty-nine arti-people to their respective duties. cles. Many in both communities, it seems, take a more extensive latitude than their formulas allow them.

The members of the church of Scotland are strict Presbyterians. Their mode of ecclesiastical government was brought thither from Geneva by John Knox, the famous Scotch reformer, and who has been styled the apostle of Scotland.

As to the church government among the Scotch Presbyterians, no one is ignorant, that, from the first dawn of the reformation among us till the æra of the revolution, there was a perpetual struggle between the court and the people,

tion, sets them apart to their office by solemn prayer; and concludes the cere mony, which is sometimes called ordination, with exhorting both elders and

The kirk session, which is the lowest ecclesiastical judicatory, consists of the minister and those elders of the congre gation. The minister is ex officio moderator, but has no negative voice over the decision of the session; nor, indeed, has he a right to vote at all, unless when the voice of the elders are equal and opposite. He may, indeed, enter his

protest against their sentence, if he think it improper, and appeal to the judgment of the presbytery; but this privilege belongs equally to every elder, as well as to every person who may believe himself aggrieved by the proceedings of the session. The deacons, whose proper office it is to take care of the poor, may be present in every session, and offer their counsel on all questions that come before it; but, except in what relates to the distribution of alms, they have no decisive vote with the minister and elders.

nods there are in the church of Scotland fifteen, which are composed of the members of the several presbyteries within the respective provinces which give names to the synods.

The highest authority in the church of Scotland is the general assembly, which consists of a certain number of ministers and ruling elders delegated from each presbytery, and of commissioners from the universities and royal boroughs. A presbytery in which there are fewer than twelve parishes sends to the general assembly two ministers The next judicatory is the presbytery, and one ruling elder; if it contain bewhich consist of all the pastors within a tween twelve and eighteen ministers, it certain district, and one ruling elder sends three of these, and one ruling elfrom each parish, commissioned by his der: if it contain between eighteen and brethren to represent, in conjunction twenty-four ministers, it sends four miwith the minister, the session of that nisters, and two ruling elders; and of parish. The presbytery treats of such twenty-four ministers, when it contains matters as concern the particular so many, it sends five, with two ruling churches within its limits; as the ex- elders. Every royal borough sends one amination, admission, ordination, and ruling elder, and Edinburgh two, whose censuring of ministers; the licensing of election must be attested by the kirk probationers, rebuking the gross or con- sessions of their respective boroughs. tumacious sinners, the directing the sen- Every university sends one commissiontence of excommunication, the deciding er from its own body. The commissionupon references and appeals from kirk ers are chosen annually six weeks before sessions, resolving cases of conscience, the meeting of the assembly; and the explaining difficulties in doctrine or dis- ruling elders are often men of the first cipline; and censuring, according to the eminence in the kingdom for rank and word of God, any heresy or erroneous talents. In this assembly, which meets doctrine which hath either been public- once a year, the king presides by his ly or privately maintained within the commissioner, who is always a noblebounds of its jurisdiction. Some of them man, but he has no voice in their delihave frankly acknowledged that they berations. The order of their proceedcannot altogether approve of that part ings is regular, though sometimes the of her constitution which gives an equal number of members creates a confusion; vote, in questions of heresy, to an illite- which the moderator, who is chosen rate mechanic and his enlightened pas- from among the ministers to be, as it tor. We are persuaded (say they) that were, the speaker of the house, has not it has been the source of much trouble sufficient authority to prevent. Appeals to many a pious clergyman, who from are brought from all the other ecclethe laudable desire of explaining the siastical courts in Scotland to the geneScriptures, and declaring to his flock ral assembly; and in questions purely all the counsel of God, has employed a || religious, no appeal lies from its detervariety of expressions of the same im- minations. See Hall's View of a Gosport to illustrate those articles of faith, pel Church; Enc. Brt. art. Presbytewhich may be obscurely expressed in rians; Brown's Vindication of the Presthe established standards. The fact, byterian Form of Church Government; however, is, that in presbyters the only Scotch Confession and Directory. For prerogatives which the pastors have the other side of the question, and over the ruling elders are, the power of against Presbyterian church governordination by imposition of hands, and ment, see articles BROWNISTS, CHURCH the privilege of having the moderator CONGREGATIONAL, EPISCOPACY, and chosen from their body.

INDEPENDENTS.

PRESBYTERIANS, CUMBERLAND, this is a body of Presbyterians who principally reside in the states of Kentucky and Tennessee, and in the adjacent ter

From the judgment of the presbytery there lies an appeal to the provincial sunod, which ordinarily meets twice in the year, and exercises over the presbyteries within the province a jurisdic-ritories. tion similar to that which is vested in They constituted a presbytery sepaeach presbytery over the several kirk rate from the Kentucky synod and gesessions within its bounds. Of these sy- || neral presbyterian church, on the 10th