long confined either to that city or pro- | Both parties maintained their tenets vince. In 1520, the Franciscan friars, with the utmost obstinacy; and, by their who had the care of promulgating in- divisions, first gave their adversaries an dulgences in Switzerland, were opposed argument against them, which to this by Zuinglius, a man not inferior in un-day the Catholics urge with great force; derstanding and knowledge to Luther namely, that the Protestants are so dihimself. He proceeded with the great- vided, that it is impossible to know who est vigour, even at the very beginning, are right or wrong; and that there to overturn the whole fabric of popery; cannot be a stronger proof than these dibut his opinions were declared erro- visions that the whole doctrine is false. neous by the universities of Cologne and To these intestine divisions were added Louvain. Notwithstanding this, the ma- the horrors of a civil war, occasioned by gistrates of Zurich approved of his pro- oppression on the one hand, and enceedings; and that whole canton, to-thusiasm on the other. See ANABAPgether with those of Bern, Basil, and TISTS. Chaffausen, embraced his opinions.

These proceedings, however, were checked. Luther and Melancthon were ordered by the elector of Saxony to draw up a body of laws relating to the form of ecclesiastical government, the method of public worship, &c. which was to be proclaimed by heralds through

In Germany, Luther continued to make great advances, without being in the least intimidated by the ecclesiastical censures which were thundered against him from all quarters, he being Continually protected by the German princes, either from religious or politi-out his dominions. He, with Melanccal motives, so that his adversaries thon, had translated part of the New could not accomplish his destruction, as Testament in 1522; on the reading of they had done that of others. Melanc- which the people were astonished to thon, Carlostadius, and other men of find how different the laws of Christ eminence, also greatly forwarded the were to those which they had imposed work of Luther; and in all probability by the pope, and to which they had the popish hierarchy would have soonbeen subject. The princes and the come to an end, in the northern parts of Europe at least, had not the emperor | Charles V. given a severe check to the progress of reformation in Germany.

people saw that Luther's opinions were founded on truth. They openly renounced the papal supremacy, and the happy morn of the reformation was welcomed by those who had long sat in superstitious darkness.

During the confinement of Luther in a castle near Warburg, the reformation advanced rapidly; almost every city in This open resolution so exasperated Saxony embracing the Lutheran opi- the patrons of popery, that they intended nions. At this time an alteration in the to make war on the Lutherans, who established forms of worship was first prepared for defence. In 1526, a diet ventured upon at Wittemberg, by abo-was assembled at Spire, when the em lishing the celebration of private masses, peror's ambassadors were desired to and by giving the cup as well as the use their utmost endeavours to suppress bread to the laity in the Lord's supper. all disputes about religion, and to insist In a short time, however, the new opi-upon the rigorous execution of the nions were condemned by the university of Paris, and a refutation of them was attempted by Henry VIII. of England. But Luther was not to be thus intimidated. He published his animadversions on both with as much acrimony as if he had been refuting the meanest adversary; and a controversy managed by such illustrious antagonists drew a ge-managing ecclesiastical affairs till the neral attention, and the reformers daily gained new converts both in France and England.

sentence which had been pronounced against Luther at Worms. But this opinion was opposed, and the diet proved favourable to the reformation. But this tranquillity, which they in consequence enjoyed, did not last long. In 1529, a new diet was formed, and the power which had been granted to princes of

meeting of a general council, was now revoked, and every change declared unlawful that should be introduced into But while the efforts of Luther were the doctrine, discipline, or worship of thus every where crowned with success, the established religion, before the dethe divisions began to prevail which termination of the approaching council have since so much agitated the reform-was known. This decree was consider ed churches. The first dispute was be-ed as iniquitous and intolerable by se tween Luther and Zuinglius concerning veral members of the diet; and when the manner in which the body and blood they found that all their argumenes and of Christ were present in the eucharist. remonstrances were in vain, they en

tered a solemn protest against the decree on the 19th of April, and appealed to the emperor and a future council. Hence arose the denomination of Protestants, which from that time has been given to those who separate from the church of Rome.

so taken up with the scheme of divorce, and of abolishing the papal jurisdiction in England, he had but little leisure to attend to them. Meanwhile Charles was convinced that it was not a time to extirpate heresy by violence; and at last terms of pacification were agreed upon at Nuremberg, and ratified solemnly in the diet at Ratisbon: and affairs so ordered by Divine Providence, that the Protestants obtained terms which amounted almost to a toleration of their religion.

Charles V. was in Italy, to whom the dissenting princes sent ambasadors to lay their grievances before him; but they met with no encouraging reception from him. The pope and the emperor were in close union at this time, and they had interviews upon the business. The pope thought the emperor to be too clement, and alleged that it was his duty to execute vengeance upon the heretical faction. To this, however, the emperor paid no regard, looking upon it as unjust to condemn, unheard, a set of men who had always approved themselves good citizens The emperor, therefore, set out for Germany, having already appointed a diet of the empire to be held at Augsburg, where he arrived, and found there a full assembly of the members of the diet. Here the gentle and pacific Melancthon had been ordered to draw up a confession of their faith, which he did, and expressed his sentiments and doctrine with the great-disputes but by the meeting of a general est elegance and perspicuity; and thus came forth to view the famous confession of Augsburg.

Soon after the conclusion of the peace at Nuremburg, died John, elector of Saxony, who was succeeded by his son John Frederic, a prince of invincible fortitude and magnanimity, but whose reign was little better than one continued train of disappointments and calamities. The religious truce, however, gave new vigour to the reformation. Those who had hitherto been only secret enemies to the Roman pontiff, now publicly threw off his yoke; and various cities and provinces of Germany enlisted themselves under the religious standards of Luther. On the other hand, as the emperor had now no other hope of terminating the religious

council, he repeated his requests to the pope for that purpose. The pontiff (Clement VII.) whom the history of This was attempted to be refuted by past councils filled with the greatest the divines of the church of Rome, and uneasiness, endeavoured to retard what a controversy took place, which the he could not with decency refuse. At emperor endeavoured to reconcile, but last, in 1533, he made a proposal by his without success; all hopes of bringing legate, to assemble a council at Mantua, about a coalition seemed utterly despe- Placentia, or Bologna; but the Prorate. The votaries of the church oftestants refused their consent to the noRome, therefore, had recourse_to_the mination of an Italian council, and inpowerful arguments of imperial edicts sisted that a controversy which had its and the force of the secular arm; and, rise in the heart of Germany should be on the 19th of November, a decree was determined within the limits of the emissued by the emperor's orders every pire. The pope, by his usual artifices, way injurious to the reformers. Upon eluded the performance of his own prowhich they assembled at Smalcald, mise; and in 1534, was cut off by death, where they concluded a league of mu- in the midst of his stratagem. His suctual defence against all aggressors, bycessor Paul III, seemed to show less rewhich they formed the Protestant states || luctance to the assembling a general into one body, and resolved to apply to council, and, in the year 1535, expressed the kings of France and England to im- his inclination to convoke one at Manplore them to patronize their new con- tua; and, in the year following, actualfederacy. The king of France, being ly sent circular letters for that purpose the avowed rival of the emperor, de- through all the states and kingdoms untermined secretly to cherish those der his jurisdiction. This council was sparks of political discord; and the summoned by a bull issued out on the king of England, highly incensed against second of June 1536, to meet at ManCharles, in complaisance to whom the tua the following year: but several obpope had long retarded, and now open-stacles prevented its meeting; one of ly opposed, his long solicited divorce, the most material of which was, that was equally disposed to strengthen a Frederic duke of Mantua had no inclileague which might be rendered formi-nation to receive at once so many guests, dable to the emperor. Being, however, some of them very turbulent, into the

of the pontiff. But this protestation produced no effect. Paul III, persisted in his purpose, and issued out his circular letters for the convocation of the council, with the approbation of the emperor. In justice to this pontiff, however, it must be observed, that he showed himself not to be averse to every reformation. He appointed four cardí

place of his residence. On the other hand, the Protestants were firmly persuaded, that, as the council was assembled in Italy, and by the authority of the|| pope alone, the latter must have had an undue influence in that assembly; of consequence that all things must have been carried by the votaries of Rome. For this reason they assembled at Smalcald in the year 1537, where they so-nals, and three other persons eminent lemnly protested against this partial and for their learning, to draw up a plan for corrupt council; and, at the same time, the reformation of the church in genehad a new summary of their doctrine ral, and of the church of Rome in pardrawn up by Luther, in order to pre- ticular. The reformation proposed in sent it to the assembled bishops, if it this plan was, indeed, extremely supershould be required of them. This sum- ficial and partial; yet it contained some mary, which had the title of The Arti-particulars which could scarcely have cles of Smalcald, is commonly joined been expected from those who comwith the creeds and confessions of the posed it. Lutheran church.

All this time the emperor had been After the meeting of the general labouring to persuade the Protestants council in Mantua was thus prevented, to consent to the meeting of the counmany schemes of accommodation were cil at Trent; but, when he found them proposed both by the emperor and the fixed in their opposition to this meaProtestants; but, by the artifices of the sure, he began to listen to the sanguinary church of Rome, all of them came to measures of the pope, and resolved to nothing. In 1541, the emperor appointed terminate the disputes by force of arms. a meeting at Worms on the subject of The elector of Saxony and landgrave religion, between persons of piety and of Hesse, who were the chief supporters learning, chosen from the contending || of the Protestant cause, upon this, took parties. This conference, however, proper measures to prevent their being was, for certain reasons, removed to the surprised and overwhelmed by a su diet that was to be held at Ratisbon the perior force; but, before the horrors of same year, and in which the principal || war commenced, the great reformer subject of deliberation was a memorial Luther died in peace at Ayselben, the presented by a person unknown, con- place of his nativity, in 1546. taining a project of peace. But the conference produced no other effect than a mutual agreement of the contending parties to refer their matters to a general council, or, if the meeting of such a council should be prevented, to the next German diet.

The emperor and the pope had mutually resolved on the destruction of all who should dare to oppose the council of Trent. The meeting of it was to serve as a signal for taking up arms; and accordingly its deliberations were scarcely begun, in 1546, when the ProThe resolution was rendered ineffec- testants perceived undoubted signs of tual by a variety of incidents, which the approaching storm, and a formidawidened the breach, and put off to a ble union betwixt the emperor and the farther day the deliberations which pope, which threatened to crush and were designed to heal it. The pope or- overwhelm them at once. This year, dered his legate to declare to the diet indeed, there had been a new conference of Spire, assembled in 1542, that he at Ratisbon upon the old subject of acwould, according to the promise he had commodating differences in religion; already made, assemble a general coun- but, from the manner in which the decil, and that Trent should be the place bates were carried on, it plainly apof its meeting, if the diet had no ob-peared that these differences could onjection to that city. Ferdinand, and the princes who adhered to the cause of the pope, gave their consent to this proposal; but it was vehemently objected to by the Protestants, both because the council was summoned by the authority of the pope only, and also because the place was within the jurisdiction of the pope; whereas they desired a free council, which should not be biassed by the dictates nor awed by the proximity

ly be decided in the field of battle. The council of Trent, in the mean time, promulgated their decrees; while the reformed princes, in the diet of Ratisbon, protested against their authority, and were on that account proscribed by the emperor, who raised an army to reduce them to obedience.

The elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse led their forces into Ba|| varia against the emperor, and cannona

ded his camp in Ingoldstadt. It was supposed that this would bring on an engagement, which would probably have been advantageous to the cause of the reformed; but this was prevented chiefly by the perfidy of Maurice, duke of Saxony, who invaded the dominions of his uncle. Divisions were also fomented among the confederate princes by the dissimulation of the emperor; and France failed in paying the subsidy which had been promised by its monarch; all which so discouraged the heads of the Protestant party, that their army soon dispersed, and the elector of Saxony was obliged to direct his march homewards. But he was pursued by the emperor, who made several forced marches with a view to destroy his ** enemy before he should have time to recover his vigour. The two armies met near Muhlberg, on the Elbe, on the 24th of April, 1547; and, after a bloody action, the elector was entirely defeated, and himself taken prisoner. Maurice, who had so basely betrayed him, was now declared elector of Saxony; and, by his entreaties, Philip, landgrave of Hesse, the other chief of the Protestants, was persuaded to throw himself on the mercy of the emperor, and to implore his pardon. To this he consented, relying on the promise of Charles for obtaining forgiveness, and being restored to liberty; but, notwithstanding these expectations, he was unjustly detained prisoner, by a scandalous violation of the most solemn convention.

The affairs of the Protestants now seemed to be desperate. In the diet of Augsburg, which was soon after called, the emperor required the Protestants to leave the decision of these religious disputes to the wisdom of the council which was to meet at Trent. The greatest part of the members consented to this proposal, being convinced by the powerful argument of an imperial army, which was at hand to dispel the darkness from the eyes of such as might otherwise have been blind to the force of Charles's reasoning. However, this general submission did not produce the effect which was expected from it. A plague which broke out, or was said to do so, in the city, caused the greatest part of the bishops to retire to Bologna, by which means the council was in effect dissolved; nor could all the entreaties and remonstrances of the emperor prevail upon the pope to re-assemble it without delay. During this interval, therefore, the emperor judged it necessary to fall upon some method of accommodating the religious differ

ences, and maintaining peace until the council so long expected should be finally obtained. With this view he ordered Julius Pelugius, bishop of Naumberg, Michael Sidonius, a creature of the pope, and John Agricola, a native of Ayselben, to draw up a formulary which might serve as a rule of faith and worship till the council should be assembled; but as this was only a temporary expedient, and had not the force of a permanent or perpetual institution, it thence obtained the name of the Interim.

This project of Charles was formed partly with a design to vent his resentment against the pope, and partly to answer other political purposes. It contained all the essential doctrines of the church of Rome, though considerably softened by the artful terms which were employed, and which were quite different from those employed before and after this period by the council of Trent. There was even an affected ambiguity in many of the expressions, which made them susceptible of different senses, and applicable to the sentiments of both communions. The consequence of all this was, that the impe||rial creed was reprobated by both parties. [See INTERIM.] In the year 1542, the pope (Paul III.) died; and was succeeded by Julius III. who, at the repeated solicitations of the emperor, consented to the re-assembling of a council of Trent. A diet was again held at Augsburg, under the cannon of the imperial army, and Charles laid the matter before the princes of the empire. Most of those present gave their consent to it, and, among the rest, Maurice elector of Saxony; who consented on the following conditions: 1. That the points of doctrine which had already been decided there should be re-examined.-2. That this examination should be made in presence of the Protestant divines.-3. That the Saxon Protestants should have a liberty of voting as well as of deliberating in the council.-4. That the pope should not pretend to preside in the assembly, either in person or by his legates. This declaration of Maurice was read in the diet, and his deputies insisted upon its being entered into the registers, which the archbishop of Mentz obstinately refused. The diet was concluded in 1551; and, at its breaking up, the emperor desired the assembled princes and states to prepare all things for the approaching council, and promised to use his utmost endeavours to procure moderation and harmony, impartiality and cha

rity, in the transactions of that assembly.

The assembly of the diet promised by Charles was prevented by various accidents; however, it met at Augsburg, in 1555, where it was opened by Ferdinand in the name of the emperor, and terminated those deplorable calamities which had so long desolated the empire. After various debates the following acts were passed on the twenty-fifth of September:-That the Protestants who followed the confession of Augsburg should be for the future considered as entirely free from the jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff and from the authority and superintendence of the bishops; that they were left at perfect liberty to enact laws for themselves relating to their religious sentiments, discipline, and worship; that all the inhabitants of the German empire should be allowed to judge for themselves in religious matters, and to join themselves to that church whose doctrine and worship they thought the most pure and consonant to the spirit of true Christianity; and that all those who should injure or prosecute any person under religious pretences, and on account of their opinions, should be declared and proceeded against as public enemies of the empire, invaders of its liberty, and disturbers of its peace.

tinued the war against the Roman Catholics, committed such ravages in the On the breaking up of the diet, the empire, that a confederacy was at last Protestants took such steps as they formed against him. At the head of thought most proper for their own safety. this confederacy was Maurice, elector The Saxons employed Melancthon, and of Saxony, who died of a wound he rethe Wirtembergers Brengius, to drawceived in a battle fought on the occaup confessions of faith to be laid before sion in 1553. the new council. The Saxon divines, however, proceeded no farther than Nuremberg, having received secret orders from Maurice to stop there; for the elector perceiving that Charles had formed designs against the liberties of the German princes, resolved to take the most effectual measures for crushing his ambition at once. He therefore entered with the utmost secrecy and expedition into an alliance with the king of France and several of the German princes, for the security of the rights and liberties of the empire; after which, assembling a powerful army in 1552, he marched against the emperor, who lay with a handful of troops at Inspruck, and expected no such thing. By this sudden and unforeseen accident, Charles was so much dispirited, that he was willing to make peace almost on any terms. The consequence of this was, that he concluded a treaty at Passau, which by the Protestants is considered as the basis of their religious liberty. By the first three articles of this treaty it was agreed that Maurice and the confederates should lay down their arms, and lend their troops to Ferdinand, to assist him against the Turks; and that the landgrave of Hesse should be set at liberty. By the fourth it was agreed that the rule of faith called the Interim Thus was the reformation established should be considered as null and void; in many parts of the German empire, that the contending parties should en- where it continues to this day; nor have joy the free and undisturbed exercise the efforts of the popish powers at any of their religion until a diet should time been able to suppress it, or even to be assembled to determine amicably prevent its gaining ground. It was not, the present disputes (which diet was however, in Germany alone that a reto meet in the space of six months;) formation of religion took place. Aland that this religious liberty should most all the kingdoms of Europe began continue always, in case it should be to open their eyes to the truth about the found impossible to come to a uni- same time. The reformed religion was formity in doctrine and worship. It propagated in Sweden, soon after Luwas also determined, that all those who ther's rupture with the church of Rome, had suffered banishment or any other by one of his disciples named Olaus calamity, on account of their having Patri. The zealous efforts of this misbeen concerned in the league or war of sionary were seconded by Gustavus Smalcald, should be reinstated in their | Vasa, whom the Swedes had raised to privileges, possessions, and employ- the throne in the place of Christiern, ments; that the imperial chamber at king of Denmark, whose horrid barSpire should be open to the Protestants barity lost him the crown. This prince, as well as to the Catholics; and that however, was as prudent as he was there should always be a certain num-zealous; and, as the minds of the ber of Lutherans in that high court. Swedes were in a fluctuating state, he To this peace Albert, marquis of Bran- wisely avoided all kinds of vehemence denburg, refused to subscribe; and con- and precipitation in spreading the new