CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF THEOLOGY.

grace in order to salvation, human liberty, and the like. For that devout and venerable simplicity of the first ages of the church, which taught men to believe when God speaks and to obey when God commands, appeared to the leading doctors of this age to be clownish and vulgar. Many of those however who attempted to explain and illustrate these doctrines, opened the way rather for disputation than for a rational faith and a holy life; for they did not so much explain as involve in greater obscurity and darken with ambiguous terms and incomprehensible distinctions the deep mys

1. In the controversies which in this century agitated nearly all Christendom, many points of theology were more fully explained and more accurately defined than they had been before. Thus it was with the doctrine concerning Christ, his person and natures; and those concerning the innate depravity of the human soul, the natural ability of men to live and act as the law of God requires, the necessity of divine much engaged in contests with the castern patriarchs, ter, and perhaps a bishop. His works were collected and has left us nineteen Epistles, extant in the Concilia, by Asterius towards the close of this century, com- tom. iv. prising Carmen Paschale (on the miracles of Christ) Ruricius senior, bishop of Limoges in France, flourVeteris et Novi Test. Collatio, an elegiac poem, Paunished A.D. 470, but was alive in 536. He has left us two Alphabeticus de Christo, in Iambic measure (on the life books of Epistles, published by Canisius, Antiq. Lecof Christ), and Paschale Opus in prosc, An Exposition tiones, tom. v. (or tom. i. of new ed.) and in the Biblio. of all the Epistles of Paul is falsely ascribed to him. Patrum, tom. viii. The works of Sedulius have been published repeatedly, and are to be found in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. vi.[The best edition is in the fourth volume of the Poetae Christiana of F. Arevalus, Rome, 1788-94, in four vols. 4to. This collection includes the works of Prudentius, Dracontius, Juvencus, and Sedulius. The Paschale Opus in prose is merely another version by the author himself of his poem entitled Carmen Paschale.-R.

Valerianus, a bishop in the maritime Alps, flourished A.D. 439, and was alive in 455. His twenty homilies and an epistle were published by Sirmond, Paris, 1612, 8vo, also in the Biblio. Patrum, tom. viii.

Eustathius flourished A.D. 440, the neat Latin translator of St. Basil's nine homilies on the Hexaëmeron, extant among the works of Basil the Great.

Philippus, a presbyter and disciple of Jerome, flourished A.D. 440, and died A.D. 455. He wrote a Commentary on Job, published, Basil, 1527, 4to and fol. It has been ascribed both to Bede and to Jerome.

Idatius or Hydatius, a Spanish bishop who flourished A.D. 445, and died A.D. 468. He wrote a Chronicon from A.D. 379 to A.D. 428, and afterwards continued it to A.D. 467, first published entire by Sirmond, Paris, 1619, 8vo, and since in the works of Sirmond, Paris, 1696, and Venice, 1729. It is barbarous in style and frequently inaccurate as to facts, yet affords valuable aid in tracing the movements of the Goths and Suevi. Zachæus, the reputed author of three books of discussion between Zachæus a Christian and Apollonius a pagan, in regard to Christianity. The book was probably written about A.D. 450, and is published in D'Achery's Spicilegium, tom. x.

Salonius, son of Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, and himself a Gallic bishop, flourished A.D. 453. He wrote an Exposition of the Parables of Solomon, and a Mystical Paraphrase on Ecclesiastes, both extant in the Orthodoxographia, and in Biblio. Patrum, tom. viii. Victorius or Victorinus, a Gallic mathematician, flourished A.D. 457, author of a Paschal Canon in two parts; the first part exhibits the principles and the method of calculating Easter, the second is a table of Easter days from A.D. 28 to A.D. 457. This Canon was recommended by the council of Orleans, A.D. 451, and was first published by Bucherius, Antw. 1634, fol.

Hilary, bishop of Rome, A.D. 461-467. He was the bishop of Rome's legate to the council of Ephesus in 449. Twelve of his Epistles are extant.

Paulinus Petricordius or Vesuntius (i. e. of Besançon), a Gallic poet, who flourished A.D. 461, and is often confounded with Paulinus of Nola. He wrote De Vita Sti Martini, an uninteresting poem, extant in the Biblio. Patrum, tom. vi. and published by Daunius, with notes, Lips. 1686, 8vo.

Claudius Mamertus, a Gallic poet, a presbyter, and assistant to the bishop of Vienne, flourished A.D. 462. He wrote De Statu Animi, two Epistles, a Poem against various errors, and a Hymn on the Crucifixion, all extant in the Biblio. Patrum, tom. vii.

Simplicius, bishop of Rome. A.D. 467-483 He was

Remigius, bishop of Rheims, A.D. 471-533. He baptized Clovis, king of the Franks, with many of his lords, was a man of note, and has left us five Epistles, together with his Will. The Exposition of Paul's Epistles attributed to him is not his.

Faustus, abbot of Lerins and then bishop of Riez in France, A.D. 472-480 or 485, a semi-Pelagian. His works are, De Gratia Dei et Libero Arbitrio, with several Sermons, Epistles, and Tracts, collected in Biblio. Patrum, tom. viii.

Felix, bishop of Rome, A.D. 483-492; was much in controversy with the eastern patriarchs. Fifteen of his Epistles are extant.

Victor Vitensis, an orthodox African bishop who fled to Constantinople A.D. 487, and there composed a History of the Persecutions in Africa under Genseric and Hunneric, kings of the Vandals. It was published with Optatus Milevitanus, Paris, 1659, 8vo, with Vigilius Tapsensis, Dijon, 1664, 4to, and in the Biblio. Patrum, tom. viii.

Alcimus Ecdicius Avitus, bishop of Clermont, A.D. 490-523. He has left us five poetic books On the Creation and Fall of Man, the Flood, and the Passage of the Red Sea, a poem in praise of Virginity, eightyseven epistles, and some sermons, published by Sirmond, Paris, 1463, and in the Biblio. Patrum, tom. ix. [See an account of his life and writings in Smith's Greek and Rom. Biog. vol. i. p. 434.-R.

Gelasius, bishop of Rome, A.D. 492-496. Sixteen of his epistles and fragments of various other works are extant. The famous decree of a Roman council, A.D. 494, De Libris Canonicis, Ecclesiasticis, et Apocryphis, ascribed to Gelasius, is of dubious authenticity.

Gennadius, a presbyter of Marseilles, flourished A.D. 495, and wrote De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis, or a catalogue of authors continuing Jerome's catalogue from the year 393 to A.D. 495. His book De Fide and his Life of Jerome are also extant. But his works against all the heresies, against Nestorius, and against Pelagius, his tract on the Millenium, and his translations from the Greek fathers, are lost.

Rusticus Elpidius, physician to Theodoric, king of the Goths, flourished about A.D. 498, and has left twenty-four epigrams on Scriptural facts, and a poem on the Benefits of Christ.

Julianus Pomerius of Mauritania, a teacher of rhetoric at Arles and a presbyter there, flourished A.D. 498. His work De Anima, and several smaller ones, are lost. But his treatise De Vita Contemplativa, is extant among the works of Prosper, to whom it has been wrongly ascribed.

Symmachus, bishop of Rome, A.D. 498-514, famous for his excommunication of the emperor Anastasius, has left us twelve epistles.-Mur. [To this list should be added the names of Nicetas or Nicmas of Romacia, mentioned below at page 192, and Nicetas, bishop of Aquileia, several tracts by whom have been recently published by Cardinal Mai, in his Script. Vet. nova Collectio, vol. vil part i. pages 314-340.-R.

5

teries of revealed religion; and hence arose | mages, the superstitious offices of devotion abundant matter for those difficulties, con- paid by the living to the souls of the dead, tentions, and animosities which have flowed the multiplication and extravagant veneradown to succeeding ages, and which can tion of temples, chapels and altars, and scarcely be removed by the efforts of human innumerable other proofs of degenerate power. It hardly need be remarked that piety, I forbear to speak particularly. As some, while pressing their adversaries, in- no one in those times objected to Christians cautiously fell into the opposite errors retaining the opinions of their pagan anceswhich were no less dangerous. tors respecting the soul, heroes, demons, temples, and the like, and their transferring them into their devotions; and as no one proposed utterly to abolish the ancient pagan institutions but only to alter them somewhat and purify them, it was unavoidable that the religion and the worship of Christians should in this way become corrupted. This also I will add, that the doctrine of the purification of souls after death by means of some sort of fire, which afterwards became so great a source of wealth to the clergy, acquired in this age a fuller development and greater influence."

2. The superstitious notions and human devices by which religion was before much clogged, were very considerably augmented. The aid of departed saints was implored with supplications by vast multitudes, and no one censured this absurd devotion. Nor did the question which afterwards occasioned much debate—namely, in what way the prayers of mortals could reach the ears of residents in heaven, present any difficulties to the Christians of those times. For they did not suppose the souls of departed saints to be so confined to the celestial mansions, as not to have liberty of paying visits to mortals and of travelling over various regions at their pleasure. These unembodied spirits were supposed to be frequent and willing visitors at the places where their bodies were buried; and this opinion transmitted to Christians from the Greeks and Romans, drew a great conflux of supplicants to the sepulchres of the saints.2 The images of those who were in reputation for sanctity while alive, were now honoured with extraordinary devotion in several places; and there were those who believed what the pagan priests had maintained respecting the statues of Jupiter and Mercury namely, that those inhabitants of heaven were favourably present in these their images. The bones of martyrs and the sign of the cross, were supposed to be the most sovereign remedy against the assaults of demons and all other calamities, and to have power not only to heal diseases of the body, but likewise those of the mind. Of the public processions, the holy pilgri

On the rise and spread of this intercession of departed spirits and other innovations referred to in this paragraph, see Gieseler's Lehrbuch, &c. sec. 99, or sec. 97, in Cunningham's Translation, Philad. 1836. This translation will henceforth be referred to, being the only extant English translation, as the second volume of Dr. Davidson's more accurate translation of Gieseler's later edition was not published when these sheets were passing through the press [June, 1847].-R.

2 Lactantius, Divinar. Instit. lib. i. p. 164; Hesiod. Opp. et Dier. line 122; with which compare Sulpitius Severus, Epist. ii. p. 371; Dial. ii. cap. xiii. p. 474; Dial. iii. p. 65; Macarius, in Tollius, Insignia Itineris Italici, p. 197, and other writers of that age.

3 Clementina, Homil. x. in Patr. Apostol. tom. i. p. 697, Arnobius, Adv. Gentes, lib. vi. p. 254, &c; Barthius, Ad Rutilium Numantian. p. 250.

4 Prudentius, Hymn. xi. De Coronis, pages 150, 151; Sulpitius Severus, Epist. i. p. 364; Eneas Gazæus, Theophrastus, p. 173, ed. Barth.

The

3. The number of those who devoted their talents to the explanation of the Scriptures was not so great as in the preceding century, when there was less controversy among Christians; and yet the number was not small. I pass over those who expounded but one or only a few books of Scripture, Victor of Antioch, Polychronius, Philo of Carpathus, Isidore of Cordova, Salonius, and Andreas of Cæsarea. two most distinguished interpreters of this century who explained a great part of the sacred volume, and not altogether without success, were, Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus, and Theodorus of Mopsuestia. Both possessed genius and learning, and neither would follow in the footsteps of preceding expositors without some reason. positions of the former are before the public; those of the latter lie concealed in the East among the Nestorians for various reasons, and are worthy to see the light. Cyril of Alexandria deserves a place among the interpreters, but a far more honourable

The ex

8

5 These pilgrimages were then so common that some Christians fell into absurdities truly ridiculous. They journeyed quite to Arabia in order to see the dunghill on which the diseased Job sat, and to kiss the ground which had absorbed his precious blood; as Chrysostom describes it (Homily v. to the Antiochians) where he says in his rhetorical way, that the dunghill of Job was more venerable than the throne of a king.-Schl.

6 On this subject Augustine deserves especially to be consulted, De Octo Quaestionibus ad Dulcitium Liber, cap. xiii. Opp. tom. vi. p. 128, De Fide et Operibus, cap. xvi. p. 182, De Fide, Spe, et Caritate, sec. cxviii. p. 222, Exposition of Psalm xxxv. sec. iil. &c.

7 See Símon, Hist. Crit. des Princip. Comment. du Nouv. Test. chap. xxii. p. 314, and Crit. de la Biblio. Eccles. de M. Du Pin tome i. p. 180 [and note 4, p. 183, above.-Mur.

8 Asseman, Biblioth. Oriental. Clement. Vatic. tom. iii. sec. ii. p. 227; Simon, Crit. de la Biblioth. Eccles. par M. Du l'in, tome i. pages 108, 677. [See also note 4, p. 184 above.-Mur.

one is due to Isidore of Pelusium, whose | it, for to this day they preserve his books epistles contain much which tends to eluci- with care, and venerate him as a saint of date and explain the holy Scriptures.'

the highest order.

4. Most of these interpreters, whether 6. It is very evident that the doctrines Greeks or Latins, everywhere copy after of religion were not exhibited with due Origen, and despising the genuine and ob- purity and simplicity by most persons, but vious meaning of the Scriptures, search were sometimes with uncommendable zeal after abstruse senses, or what the Latins of expanded beyond what was revealed, were that age called mysteries, in the plainest anatomized with too great art and subpassages and sentences of the Bible. Some tlety, and were supported not so much by of the Greeks indeed, and in particular Scripture evidence, as by the authority and Theodoret, laboured not unsuccessfully in reasonings of the ancient doctors. I know explaining the pages of the New Testa- of no one who embraced a complete system ment, which we may ascribe to their skill of Christian doctrines in a single work, unin the Greek language, with which they had less Nicæas of Romacia may be considered been familiar from their infancy; but upon as doing this in the six books of instruction the Hebrew Scriptures neither the Greeks for Neophytes which he is said to have comnor the Latins cast much light. Nearly all posed.5 But it has been already observed who attempted to explain them, making no that various doctrines of religion were use of their judgment, applied the whole laboriously explained, especially in the coneither to Christ and his benefits, or to anti-troversial works against the Nestorians, Christ and his wars and desolations, and to Eutychians, Pelagians, and Arians. the kindred subjects.

5. Here and there, however, one more sagacious and wiser than the rest ventured to point out a safer path. This is evident from the Epistles of Isidore of Pelusium, who in various places censures in a pertinent manner those who, disregarding the historic sense, referred all the narrative and prophetic parts of the Old Testament to Christ; and yet he himself was by no means entirely free from the fault of his age, the love and pursuit of allegories. No one went further in censuring the imitators of Origen than Theodorus of Mopsuestia. He not only wrote a book concerning allegory and history against Origen, but also in his own Commentaries on the Prophets of the Old Testament he ventured to explain most of their predictions with reference to events in ancient history;3 and this method of explaining the Old Testament perhaps raised as much ill-will against him as those other sentiments which brought on him the charge of heresy. The example of this excellent man was followed especially by the Nestorians. Nor have they yet ceased to follow

2

1 Concerning both, scc Simon, Hist. des Princip. Comment. du Nour. Test. chap. xxi. p. 330, &c. [For some account of Cyril, see note 3, p. 183, and concerning Isidore, note 1, p. 184 above.-Mur. [Further, in respect of three of these interpreters, Theodoret, Cyril, and Isidore, see Davidson's Sacred Hermeneutics from p. 141, &c.-R.

2 Facundus Hermianensis, De Tribus Capitulis, lib. iii. cap. vi; Liberatus, Breviarium, cap, xxiv.

3 Acta Concilii Constantinop. II. seu Ecumenici V. tom. iii. p. 58 of Harduin's Concilia.

4 One witness among others is Cosmas Indicopleustes, a writer of the sixth century, who is known to have been a Nestorian. For he says in his Topographia, lib. v. (pages 224, 225, of the Collectio nova Patrum Græcor. published by Montfaucon), "Among all the Psalms of David only four refer to Christ;" and to confirm this sentiment he does not hesitate to declare (p. 227)

7. Of controversial writers a great number can be mentioned, and indeed many such were required by the numerous controversies. The worshippers of the pagan images and gods were vigorously assailed by Theodoret in his book De Curandis Græcorum Affectionibus, which displays much genius and erudition, by Orientius in his Commonitorium, and by Evagrius in his Disputation between Zachæus and Apollonius.6 To these may be added Philip of Side and Philostorgius, of whom the former wrote against Julian and the latter against Porphyry.7 The Jews were confuted by Basil of Seleucia, by Gregentius in his Disputation with Herbanus, and by Evagrius in his Dialogue between Theophilus and a Jew. Against all the heretics something was attempted by Voconius, an African,

8

"That the writers of the New Testament when they Christ, follow the words rather than the sense." See

apply the prophecies of the Old Testament to Jesus also Walch, Hist. der Ketzer. vol. p. p. 830.- Mur.

5 Gennadius, De Scriptoribus Ecclesiast. cap. xxii. p. 14, ed. Fabric. [The work is lost, but from the account of Gennadius it was no System of Theology.Mur. [See Professor Ramsay's account of the author whose name was Nicetas or Nicreas, in Smith's Dict. of Greek and Rom. Biog. vol. ii. p. 1184.-R.

6 For an account of Orientius and Evagrius see the Hist. Littér. de la France, tome ii. pages 121, and 252. [Orientius, called also Orontius and Öresius, was bishop of Aux in France, perhaps also of Tarragona in Spain. His Commonitorium written in heroic verse, was published, book i. by Delrio, Antwerp, 1600, and book ii. by Martene, in his Nova Collectio Onerum Eccles. Vet. Paris, 1700. This Evagrius is not the noted Evagrius Scholasticus of the sixth century, but was a French priest and a disciple of St. Martin. His Altercatie Simonis Judæi et Theophili Christiani, is found in Martene's Anecdota; and his Consultationes, seu Deliberationes Zachai Christiani et Apollonii Philosophi, is in the Spicilegium of D'Achery, tom. x.-Schl.

7 Neither of the works here mentioned is extant.Mur.

8 For some account of this Basil and of his writings, see note 2, p. 185 above.-Mur.

by Syagrius in his tract De Fide, by Gennadius of Marseilles, and, best of all by Theodoret' in his work De Fabulis Hareticorum. Those who attacked only individual sects are here omitted.

tion of Gelasius but of some one who abused his name.3

10. Among those who discussed the subject of morals, Eucherius, Salvian, and Nilus, stand conspicuous. The epistle of 8. Those who contended against the Eucherius especially, on Contempt of the Christian sectaries followed the rules of the World and Secular Philosophy, will reconancient sophists, and also (what is truly mend itself to every good man both by its surprising) the practice, of the Roman style and its matter. The short pieces of courts rather than the examples and in- Mark the hermit breathe a spirit of piety, structions of Christ and his apostles. In but do not afford pleasure either by the the Roman courts very difficult and doubt- choice of the matter, the justness of the ful points were decided according to the arrangement, or the solidity of the reasonopinions of certain ancient jurists. If these ing. Fastidius composed various tracts happened to disagree, that opinion was pre- concerning moral duties and virtues, which ferred which was maintained by the greatest are all lost. The productions of Diadonumber, or by the jurists of most learning chus, Prosper, and Severianus in this deand reputation. It was very prejudicial partment are interesting, with a few to the interests of truth that this usage of exceptions, for the truth and terseness of the Roman courts was adopted as a rule in the thoughts, but they will afford little the controversies of Christians on subjects satisfaction to one fond of solid reasoning of religion, and followed in the deliberations and well-digested composition. Indeed it of the councils of this century; for by it was a fault common to nearly all the moral that was sanctioned and regarded as con-writers of those times, that they had no idea firmed which had been judged true and of a regular distribution of their subject certain by the majority, or by the most into parts, nor of a recurrence to first learned and distinguished of the doctors of principles. former times. This appears from nearly all the Acts of Councils now extant. The other faults of the theological disputants may be easily inferred from what has now

been stated.

9. This imitation of the practice of the Roman courts in conducting religious controversies stimulated very much the base audacity of those, who did not blush to palm their own spurious productions on the great men of former times, and even on Christ himself and his apostles; so that they might be able, in the councils and in their books, to oppose names against names and authorities against authorities. The whole Christian church of this century was overwhelmed with these disgraceful fictions. And this it is said occasioned the Roman pontiff, Gelasius, to assemble at Rome a convention of bishops from the whole western empire, and after examining the books which were professedly the works of persons of the highest authority, to draw up that famous decree by which so many apocryphal books are stripped of their false reputation. That something of this kind was actually done cannot well be denied, but men of superior learning maintain that this pretended decree of Gelasius is of no better authority than those books which it condemns; that is, they believe that it was not the produc

11. But the candid might tolerate this fault and ascribe it to the infelicity of the times, did they not see other injuries inflicted on the cause of piety by inconsiderate men. In the first place the mystics as they are called, who pretended to be more perfect than other Christians, drew to their party many everywhere among the weak and thoughtless, and especially in the eastern provinces, who were allured by the appearance of their extraordinary and selfdenying piety; and it is incredible what rigorous and severe laws they imposed on themselves, in order to appease God and deliver the celestial spirit from the bondage of this mortal body. To live among wild beasts-nay, in the manner of these beasts, to roam about like madmen in desert places and without garments, to feed their emaciated bodies with hay and grass, to shun the converse and even the sight of men, to stand motionless in certain places for many

3 Pearson, Vindicia Ignatianæ, pt. i. chap. iv. page 189, &c: Cave, Hist. Liter. page 260; Siberus, Praf. ad Enchiridion Sexti, page 79, and others. [This decree is ascribed by most of the MSS. to Gelasius I. It is not quoted by any writer before the ninth century. but by some to Damasus, and by others to Hormisdas. It mentions some books which were not in being in the age of Gelasius; and it contains some sentiments and arguments which savour of a later age. It may be found in perhaps all the larger Collections of Councils; in Binnius, vol. ii. in Labbe, vol. iv. in Harduin, vol.

ii. in Mansi, Supplem. vol. i. also in the Corpus Juris Canonici, Decret. Gratian. pt. i. Distinct. xv. cap. iil.

1 An account of Theodoret and of his writings is-Mur. given in note 4, p. 183 above.-Mur.

2 See Codex Theodosianus, lib. i. tit. iv. De Responsis Prudentum, p. 32, ed. Ritter.

4 Except his tract on a Christian Life and Widowhood, addressed to a pious widow, which is preserved among the works of Augustine, tom. ix.-Mur.

P