wards very successful [and recovered his | piety, was zealous for suppressing the rethrone] he laboured by all the means in mains of the old superstition still existing his power to promote that religion which in various provinces of the empire, and for he had before betrayed.' supporting Christianity which was but im8. The conversion of the Norwegians perfectly established in many places. By commenced in this century, as appears from his beneficence and liberality bishoprics the most unexceptionable testimony. King were erected in various places, as BrandenHagen Adelsteen who had been educated burg, Havelberg, Meissen, Magdeburg, among the English, is said to have com- and Naumburg; so that there might be no menced this great work A.D. 933, by the want of spiritual watchmen, who should aid of priests from England, but with little instruct the yet rude and half barbarous success, because the Norwegians were vio- people in all the duties of religion." In lently opposed to the king's designs. His accordance with the religious views of the successor, Harald Graufeldt, pursued the age, he also built many convents for those work thus commenced, but with no better who preferred a monastic life; and he also success. After these Haco, by the per- erected schools. If in these measures the suasion of the Danish king Harald to whom illustrious emperor had exhibited as much he owed his possession of the throne, not wisdom and moderation, as piety and sinonly embraced Christianity himself but cerity, he could scarcely be commended recommended it to his people in a public too much. But the superstition of his wife diet A.D. 945.3 Little success however Adelaides and the lamentable ignorance of attended this effort among that barbarous the times, led this excellent prince to beand savage people. Somewhat more suc-lieve that a man secured the friendship of cessful were the attempts of Olaus who is God, by securing that of his ministers and called a saint.*. At length Sueno, king of servants with great largesses and presents. Denmark, having vanquished Olaus Tryg- He therefore enriched the bishops, guesen conquered Norway, and published monks, and religious associations of every an edict requiring the inhabitants to aban-kind beyond all bounds; and subsequent don the gods of their ancestors, and to generations reaped this fruit of his liberaembrace Christianity. An English priest Guthebald was the principal teacher at that time among them.5 From Norway the Christian religion was transmitted to the Orkney islands then subject to the kings of Norway, to Iceland also, and to old Greenland. The inhabitants of these countries to a great extent made profession of Christianity in this century, as we learn from various sources. G 9. In Germany, the emperor Otto the Great, illustrious for his valour and his the gae, lib. i.; and Arius Multicius, Scheda do Islandia, p. 45, &c.; see the same Torfæus, Histor. Norveg. tom. ii. p. 378, 397, 417, &c. Also Liron, Singularités Histor. et Littér. tome i. p. 138. Concerning Greenland Torfæus also treats, ubi supra, tom. ii. p. 374; and in Grænlandia Antiqua, cap. xvii. p. 127, Copen. 1706, 8vo. [Münter, Kirchenges. von Danemark u. Norwe gen, vol. i. treats of the conversion of the Norwegians, P. 429, &c.; of the Icelanders, p. 517, &c.; of the Faro landers, p. 555, &c.-Mur. [Both Gieseler and Döl and Shetland islanders, p. 518, &c.; and of the Green linger refer also to a work by Finnus Johannæus or Finner Jansen, a bishop of Iceland, entitled Hist. Ec cles. Islandia, Copen. 1772-75, 3 tom. 4to.-R. 7 It is more probable that Otho the Great had long purposed, by the erection of a new archbishopric, to 1 Saxo Grammat. Histor. Dan. lib. x. p. 186; Pon- curtail the odious power of the archbishop of Mentz. toppidan, De Gestis et Vestigiis Danorum extra Da-Therefore in the year 946, he established the bishopric niam, tom. ii. cap. i. sec. 1, 2. 2 See Pontoppidan, Annales Ecclesia Danica Diplo mat. tom. i. p. 66. of Havelberg, and in 949 that of Brandenburg. For establishing the archbishopric of Magdeburg (as we are told by Ditmar, p. 335), the emperor's motives were, defensio communis patriæ and spes remunerationis æternæ. The first was doubtless the chief motive. 3 Torfæus, Hist. Norvegica, tom. ii. p. 183, 214, &c. 4 Torfæus, ubi supra, tom. ii. p. 457, &c. 5 Chron. Danacum, published by Ludewig in his The bishop of Halberstadt and the archbishop of Reliquia Manuscriptor. tom. ix. p. 11, 16, 17. [Ac-Mentz looked upon this innovation with dislike. But cording to Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxi. p. 376, the emperor seized the opportunity of their presence in &c. this Olaus Tryggweson the son of a petty Norwe- Italy, whither they came to receive their investiture at gian chieftain, spent many years in Russia and on the his hands, to obtain from them the transfer of the Wendish coast of Germany, while his country revolted suffragan bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg from Harald Blauzahn, king of Denmark, under Hakon from the jurisdiction of Mentz to that of Magdeburg, their viceroy. Olaus became a successful pirate, ad- and also the transfer of large estates hitherto possessed vanced in power and wealth, became also a zealous by the bishop of Halberstadt. Adelbert, formerly a Christian, and in his plundering expeditions in those missionary and at this time abbot of Weissenburg, was northern seas treated the pagans much as the Moham- ordained first archbishop of Magdeburg A.D. 968 by the medans did the same sort of persons; that is, gave Pope, and received the pallium; and attended by two them the alternative of baptism, or slavery and death. papal envoys and the new bishops, repaired to MagdeThe Norwegians now chose him their king and re-burg and was regularly installed. At the same time he volted from Hakon. Olaus got possession of the whole country, and by compulsory measures obliged all opposers to embrace Christianity. This was just at the close of the century.-Mur. Concerning the inhabitants of the Orkneys sec Torfæus, Hist. Rerum Orcadensium, lib. i. p. 22. For the Icelanders, in addition to Arngrim Jonas, Crymo consecrated the new bishops, Boso of Merseburg, Hugo of Zeitz, and Burkard of Meissen; who together with the bishops of Brandenburg, Havelberg, and Posen, were to constitute his suffragans. See the Annalist Saxo, ad ann. 969.-Schl. iii. 8 See her life in Canisius, Lectiones Antiqua, tcm. par. i, p. 69. lity, that these people abused their unearned wealth for pampering their vices, carrying on wars, and indulging themselves in luxury and dissipation. 10. To the account of these enlargements of the church it may be subjoined, that the European kings and princes began in this century to consider the project of a holy war, to be waged against the Mohammedans who possessed Palestine. For it was thought intolerable and a disgrace to the professors of the Christian religion, that the country in which Christ lived and taught and made expiation for the sins of the human race, should be left under the dominion of his enemies; and it was deemed most righteous and agreeable to the dignity of the Christian religion, to avenge the numerous calamities and injuries, insults and sufferings, which the possessors of Palestine were accustomed to heap upon the Christians residing in that country, or visiting it for religious purposes. Just at the close of the century and in the first year of his pontificate, Pope Sylvester II. or Gerbert sounded the trumpet of war, by writing a letter in the name of the church at Jerusalem addressed to the church universal; in which he solemnly adjured the Europeans to afford succour to the Christians of Jerusalem. But none of them were disposed at that time to obey the summons of the pontiff, except the inhabitants of Pisa in Italy, who are said to have forthwith girded themselves for the holy war." CHAPTER II. ADVERSE EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 1. No unchristian king of this century, except Gormon and Sueno, kings of Denmark, directly and with set purpose persecuted the Christians living under his jurisdiction. And yet they could not live in security and safety either in the East or in the West. The Saracens in Asia and Africa, though troubled with internal dissensions and various other calamities, were yet very assiduous in propagating their religion, that of Mohammed; nor were they unsuccessful. How much this Mohammedan zeal diminished the number of Christians it is not easy to ascertain. But they brought over the Turks, an uncivilised people inhabiting the northern shores of the Caspian sea, to their religion. This agreement in religious faith however did 1 This is the twenty-eighth epistle of the first part, in the Collection of the Epistles of Sylvester II. published by Du Chesne, in vol. lii. of the Scriptores Histor. Franc. See Muratori, Scriptores Rer. Ital. tom. lil. p. 400. not prevent the Turks, when afterwards called in to aid the Persians, from depriv ing the Saracens in the first place of the vast kingdom of Persia; and afterwards with astonishing celerity and success, invading and conquering other provinces subject to their dominion. Thus the empire of the Saracens, which the Greek and Roman powers had for so many years in vain attempted to hold in check, was dismembered, and at length subverted, by their friends and allies; and the very powerful empire of the Turks, which has not yet ceased to be terrible to Christians, gradually took its place. 3 2. In the countries of the West, the nations which were still pagans were in general grievous foes to the Christians. The Normans during nearly half the century inflicted the severest calamities upon the Franks and others. The Prussians, the Slavonians, the Bohemians, and others to whom Christianity was unintelligible and hateful, not only laboured with great violence to drive it from their countries, but likewise frequently laid waste in the most distressing manner with fire and sword, the neighbouring countries in which it was received. The Danes did not cease to molest the Christians, till after Otto the Great had conquered them. The Hungarians assailed Germany, and harassed various parts of the country with indescribable cruelties. The tyranny of the Arabs in Spain and their frequent incursions upon Italy and the neighbouring islands, I pass without farther notice. 3. Whoever considers attentively the innumerable calamities the Christian nations suffered from those who were not Christian, will readily perceive a sufficient cause for that unwearied zeal of Christian princes for the conversion of these furious and savage nations. They had the motives not merely of religion and virtue, but of security and peace. For they expected and with good reason, that those savage 3 These events Leunclavius has endeavoured to elucidate in his Annales Turcici, often reprinted. Sce also Elmacin, Hist. Saracenica, lib. II. iii. p. 190, 203, 210, &c. 4 These distinguished themselves especially by the outrages they committed upon the Christian churches, in their insurrections against their Christian margraves. Humanity shudders at the narratives of the historians; that when these Slavonians took Brandenburg, they not only enslaved or slew all the clergy, but drew the corpse of Dodilo, the deceased bishop, from its grare in order to strip it of its clothing; that after capturing the city of Altenburg they dragged sixty priests, whom they had not butchered, from one city to another till they all died; and among these, Oddar, a provost, they tortured by ripping up his scalp in the form of a cross and laying bare his brain, so that he died in the midst of the extreme anguish. See the Annalist Saxo, ad ann. 988; and Ditmar, p. 345. Schl. religions of their ancestors which were altogether military and calculated to foster ferocious feelings; and those kings and chieftains, influenced by these offers and advantages, listened to Christian instruction, and endeavoured to bring their sub minds would be softened and rendered PART II. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. THE STATE OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. 1. Ir is universally admitted that the ignorance of this century was extreme, and that learning was entirely neglected. Nor is this very surprising, considering what wars and distressing calamities agitated both the East and the West, and to what a base set of men the guardianship of truth and virtue was intrusted. Leo the Wise, who ruled the Greek empire at the beginning of the century, both cultivated learning himself and excited others to do so. His son, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, was still more solicitous to revive literature and the arts. For it appears that he supported 1 See Fabricius, Biblioth. Græc. lib. v. par. ii. cap. v. p. 363. [Leo VI. reigned from A.D. 886 to 911. The learned Photius had been his instructor. His learning procured him the titles of the Wise and the Philosopher. He completed the revision of the imperial laws begun by his father, and published the result in sixty books entitled Βασιλικὰ or Βασιλικαὶ διατάξεις. It is a Greek translation of Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis, with extracts from the commentaries of the Greek Jurists, the laws of subsequent emperors, and the decisions of ecclesiastical councils, &c. But much of the originals is omitted or changed or enlarged. Fabrotti published a Latin translation of forty-one books and an abstract of the remaining books, Paris, 1647, seven vols. fol. This emperor's book on the art of war compiled from earlier writers, was published by Meursius, Greek and Latin, Leyden, 1612, 4to. His letter to the Saracen Omar in favour of Christianity exists in Chaldaic, from which there is a Latin translation in the Biblioth. Patr. Lugdun. tom. xvii.-Baronius (Annal. A.D. 911, § 3,) gives account of thirty-three religious Discourses of this emperor; and Gretser has published nine more, Ingolst. 1600, 4to. They were chiefly designed for the feast days, and are of little value. See Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxi. p. 127, &c.-Mur. 2 Fabricius, ubi supra, cap. v. p. 486. [Constantine Porphyrogenitus reigned from A.D. 911 to 959. The historical, political, and moral compendiums, which he caused to be made out from the earlier writers, were arranged under fifty-three heads or titles; and were intended to embrace all that was most valuable on those subjects. Only two of the fifty-three are now to be found, namely, the twenty-seventh, relating to the diplomatic intercourse of the Romans with foreign nations, (published, partly Antwerp, 1582, 4to, and partly Augsburg, 1603, 4to,) and the fiftieth, respecting virtue and vice, of which a part was published by Valesius, Paris, 1634, 4to. The titles of some of the others are known; c. g. on the proclamations of kings, on heroic deeds, on festivals, on public addresses, on manners, on ecclesiastical persons and things, on epistles, on learned men of various descriptions at great expense; he carefully collected the writings of the earlier ages; he was himself an author and he prompted others to write; he wished to have all that was most valuable in the works of the ancients selected and arranged under appropriate heads; and he re-animated as it were the study of philosophy which was extinct.3 Few of the Greeks however copied after these noble examples, nor was there any among the subsequent emperors who was equally friendly to literature and to the cultivation of the mind. Indeed it is supposed that Constantine Porphyrogenitus himself, though the Greeks pronounce him the restorer of all branches of learning, undesignedly inzeal to advance it. For having caused exjured the cause of learning by his excessive tracts and abridgments to be compiled by learned men from the writers of preceding ages, in order to elucidate the various branches of knowledge and render them serviceable to the world, the slothful Greeks now contenting themselves with these abridgments of the emperor, neglected the writers from whom they were compiled. And therefore many excellent authors of the earlier period became lost, through the neglect of the Greeks from this time onward. 2. Few writers therefore can be named among the Greeks, on whom a wise and the chase, on war, on the establishment of colonies, on strange occurrences, &c. Among the emperor's own compositions were a biography of his grandfather, Basil, two books on the military stations and garrisons of the empire, instructions to his son respecting the state and the foreign relations of the empire and the course it would be wise for him to pursue, narrative respecting the image of Christ found at Edessa, on naval and military tactics, on the mode of warfare by different nations, and some compilations on farriery, agriculture, breeding cattle, physic, &c. together with a large work entitled the Ceremonial of the Court of Constantinople, describing minutely all the etiquette there practised. It was published by Reiske, Lips. 1751-54, 2 vols. fol.-See Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxi. p. 129, &c.-Mur. 3 This is expressly asserted by Zonarass Annal. tom. iii. p. 155, ed. Paris. . judicious man will place a high value; and in a short time the literary seed sown which seemed to promise a rich harvest, was found to be dead. The philosophers, if such characters flourished among them, produced no immortal works and nothing of permanent value. The body of learned Greeks was composed of a few rhetoricians, some grammarians, here and there a poet who was above contempt, and a number of historians who though not of the first order were not destitute of all merit; for the Greeks seemed to find pleasure almost exclusively in those departments of literature in which the imagination, the memory, and industry have most concern. in most countries in Europe, either in the monasteries or in the cities which were the residence of bishops; and there also shone forth in one place and another, especially at the close of the century, some distinguished men of genius who attempted to soar above the vulgar. But these can be all easily counted up, and the smallness of their number evinces the infelicity of the times. In the schools nothing was taught but the seven liberal arts as they were called; and the teachers were monks who estimated the value of learning and science solely by their use in matters of religion. 5. The best among the monks who were disposed to employ a portion of their leisure to some advantage, applied themselves to writing annals and history of a rude texture. For instance Abo, Luitprand,‘ Wittekind, Fulcuin, John of Capua,' 6 The tenth century afforded more writers in whom sound reasoning was combined with some learning, than the twelfth and thirteenth. It had greater and better princes; and in the years and the countries in which the Normans and Huns spread no general deso 3. Egypt, though groaning under an oppressive yoke, produced some learned men, who might contend with the Greeks for the palm of superiority. The example of Eutychius, bishop of Alexandria, to mention no others, will evince this; for he did honour to the sciences of medicine and theology by his various productions. Among the other Arabians, that noble ar-lation, there were more numerous episcopal and modour for useful knowledge which was awakened in the preceding age, continued unabated through this whole century; so that there was among them a large num-Metz, Toul, and Verdun; and among the monastic ber of eminent physicians, philosophers, and mathematicians, whose names and literary labours are celebrated by Leo Africanus and by others. 4. All the Latins were sunk in extreme barbarism. Most writers are agreed that this century deserves the name of the iron age, so far as respects literature and science; and that the Latin nations never saw an age more dark and cheerless. And though some excellent men have questioned this fact, it is too firmly established to be wholly disproved.2 Schools existed indeed 1 Proofs of the ignorance of the age have been collected by Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. I. p. 288, &c. Muratori, Antiq. Ital. Medii Evi, tom. ill. p. 831, &c. and tom. ii. p. 141; and by others. 2 Leibnitz, Praf. ad Codicem Juris Nature et gentium Diplomat. maintains that this tenth century was not so dark as the following centuries, and particularly not so dark as the twelfth and thirteenth. But he certainly is extravagant and labours in vain. More deserving of a hearing are, Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. Sæcul. v. Præf. p. ii. &c.-the authors of the Hist. Littér. de la France, vol. vi. p, 18, &c. le Beuf, Diss. de Statu Literar. in Francia, a Carolo M. ad Regem Robert. and some others; who while they admit that the ignorance of this age was great, contend that its barbarism was not altogether so great as it is commonly supposed. In the proofs which they allege there is considerable deficiency; but still we may admit that all science was not entirely extinct in Europe, and that there was a number of persons who were wise above the mass of people; but that the number was a very moderate one, ray really small, may be gathered from the monuments of the age.-[The opinion of Leibnitz was embraced by Semler, in his Continuation of Baumgarten's Kirchengesch. vol. iv. p. 453, &c. and Hist. Eccles. Selecta Capita, tom. ii. p. 526, &c. is arguments seem not casily answered. nastic schools, in which the young received some instruction though rude and meagre. The most noted episcopal schools were those of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, Madgeburg, Würtzburg, Paris, Tours, Rheims, Corbey, Fulda, St. Emmeran, Epternach, St. Gall, &c. schools were those of Fleury, Cluny, Laubes, Gortz, Every teacher and nearly every cloister procured a stock of the classical writers.-The Greek language was not wholly unknown; although the individuals 3 Abbo, born at Orleans, educated at Fleury, Paris, He 4 Luitprund was born at Pavia or in Spain, was envoy of Berengarius, King of Italy, to Constantinople A.D. 946, created bishop of Cremona he became odious to Berengarius, and was deposed A.D. 963 or earlier, and retired to Frankfort in Germany. The emperor Otho sent him again to Constantinople A.D. 968. was alive A.D. 970. He was a man of genius and of considerable learning. He understood and wrote in Greek as well as Latin. His works are a History of Europe during his own times, and an Account of his embassy to Constantinople in 968. To him also are falsely attributed a tract on the lives of the popes from St. Peter to Formosus, and a Chronicon. All these, together with his Adversaria or Note-Book, were printed, Antwerp, 1640, fol. See Cave, ubi supra.Mur. 5 Witikind or Winduchind, was a Saxon and a monk of Corbey in Germany, who flourished A.D. 940 and onwards. He wrote a History of the Saxons or the reigns of Henry the Fowler and Otho I. published Basil, 1532, Francf. 1577, and among the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum; likewise some poetic effusions. See Cave, ubi supra.-Mur. 6 Fulcuin or Folguin, abbot of Laubes (Laubiensis from A.D. 965 to 990. He wrote a Chronicon de Rebus gestis Abbatum Laubiensis Canobii, de Miraculis Sti Ursmari, and Fita Folcuini Ep. Tarvanensis.— Mur. 7 John Capuanus, abbot of Monte Cassino, flourished from A.D. 915 to 934. He wrote De Persecutionibus 2 Ratherius, Flodoard, Notkerus,3 Ethel- | which had a place in their schools, it is bert, and others; of whom some are in- unnecessary to give any description. deed better than others, but they all 6. The philosophy of the Latins was wander immensely wide of the true method confined wholly to logic, which was supof composing history. Of their poets one posed to contain the marrow of all wisdom. and another shows himself to be not void Moreover, this logic which was so highly of genius; but all are rude on account of extolled was usually taught without methe infelicity of the times which could thod and without clearness, according to relish nothing elegant or exquisite. The the book on the Categories falsely asgrammarians and rhetoricians of those times cribed to Augustine, and the writings of are scarcely worthy to be mentioned; for Porphyry. It is true that Plato's Timæus, they either write absolute nonsense, or inculcate precepts which are jejune and injudicious. Of their geometry, arithmetic, chronology, astronomy, and music, 5 Cœnobii Cassinensis, [a Saracenorum irruptione,] et de again bishop of Verona; was again removed and re- brothers P. and H. Ballerini, published at Verona, 1765, fol.-R. 1594, 8vo. His Historia Ecclesia Remensis was edited Aristotle's tract De Interpretatione, and these books. And yet strange as it may At 2 Flodoard or Frodoard, a canon of Rheims who died 7. At the close of this century the cause A.D. 966, aged seventy-three years. His Chronicon Rerum inter Francos gestarum, ab anno 919, ad ann. of learning in Europe obtained a great and usque 966, was published, Paris, 1588, 8vo, and Francf. energetic patron in Gerbert a Frenchman, by Sirmond, Paris, 1611, 8vo; Douay, 1617, 8vo; and known among the Roman pontiffs as bear. in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xvii. p. 500. His poetic ing the name of Sylvester II. This great lives of various ancient saints in about twenty books and exalted genius pursued successfully all were never published. See Cave, ubi supra.-Mur. [His works are noticed in Bähr, ubi supra; the poeti- branches of learning, but especially mathecal at p. 127, the Chronicon at p. 188, and the Hismatics, mechanics, geometry, astronomy, toria, &c. at p. 274, with ample references to various authorities.-R. arithmetic, and the kindred sciences; and both wrote upon them himself, and roused others to cultivate and advance them to the utmost of his power. The effects of his efforts among the Germans, French, and Italians, were manifest both in this century and the next; for many individuals of those nations were stimulated by the writings, example, and exhortations of Gerbert to the zealous pursuit of philosophy, mathematics, medicine, and other branches of human science. Gerbert cannot indeed be compared with our geometricians 3 Notker or Notger, bishop of Liege A.D. 971-1007. He wrote Hist. Episcop. Trajectensium, (seu Leodicensium,) but whether it is the same which was published by Cheapeaville, Liege, 1612, is doubted. He also wrote the life of St. Landoald, a Romish presbyter; a life of St. Remaclus, bishop of Utrecht; and on the miracles of St. Remaclus. It was another Notger of the preceding century who died A.D. 912, and who was a monk of St. Gall, whose Martyrology was published by Canisius, tom. iv. p. 761. See Cave, ubi supra.Mur. [There were three writers of this name; one was Notker Balbulus or the Stammerer, the writer of the Martyrologium published by Canisius, and of a tract, De interpretibus divinarum scripturarum in Pezius, Anecd. Thesaur. vol. i.; a second was Notker Labes or of the thick lips, a translator of some Latin classical pieces and portions of the scriptures into German; and a third Notker, surnamed Piperis granum or Peppercorn, a learned physician, also of St. Gallen.-R. 4 Ethelbert or rather Ethelwerd or Elsward was of royal English blood, and flourished A.D. 980. He wrote Historia brevis, which is a concise Chronology from the creation to the Saxon invasion of England, and then a more full and a bombastic 'history of England down to A.D. 974. It was published by Saville with the Scriptores Anglici, London, 1596, fol. p. 472. -Mur. 5 Mosheim's phrase is computus, or the calculation of the moveable feasts of the church-a branch of chronological science.-R. Gunzo, Epist. ad Monachos Augienses, in Martene, Collectio ampliss. Monument. Veter. tom. iii. p. 304. 7 Gunzo, à learned monk, ubi supra, p. 304, says:"Aristoteles genus, speciem, differentiam, proprium et accidens subsistere denegavit, quæ Platoni subsistentia persuasit. Aristoteli an Platoni magis credendum putatis? Magna est utriusque autoritas, quatenus vix audeat quis alterum alteri dignitate præferre." This is a clear exhibition of the apple of discord among the Latins. Gunzo did not venture to offer a solution of the difficult question, but others attempted it afterwards. |