nus, who was a learned and over-inquisi- the Koran, and which has indeed this sigtive emperor, some contests on religious nification though it also signifies eternal. subjects were excited by the emperor him- This execration the emperor ordered to be self; and they produced more excitement struck out of those books, as being very among the oppressed people than was con- offensive to the Mohammedans converted sistent with the welfare of the state. In to Christianity. The theologians resisted the first place, a long dispute arose under this this order, alleging that it was not God in emperor, in what sense it might be said general, but the error of Mohammed rethe incarnate God was at the same time specting God which was anathematized; the offerer and the sacrifice. After a pro- and that Mohammed affirmed God is not tracted discussion, during which the em- begotten nor doth he beget. After very peror had maintained an opinion at vari- tedious altercations and various attempts ance with the prevalent belief, he at length to settle the dispute, the bishops in a counyielded, and came over to the generally cil consented that in the instruction of received opinion. The consequence was youth, the anathema should no longer be that many persons of high respectability, be levelled at the God of Mohammed but who had disagreed with the church, were at Mohammed himself, his religion, and all deprived of their offices.1 What opinion his followers.5 was maintained by the emperor, and what was held by the church on this subject, we are nowhere distinctly informed. But it is probable that the emperor and some other learned men, disagreed with the mass of the Greeks, in respect to the Lord's supper, and the oblation or sacrifice of Christ in that ordinance.

16. Some years afterwards a more violent dispute respecting the import of Christ's words, John xiv. 28, "My Father is greater than I," rent Greece into factions. As various explanations of this passage had long existed and some new ones were advanced about this time, the emperor who from an indifferent prince made but a poor theologian, added his explanation to the number; and summoning a council, he wished to obtrude it upon all as being the only true interpretation. He decided that these words of Christ refer to the created and passible flesh of Christ (xarà rv v αὐτῶ κτιστὴν καὶ παθητὴν σάρκα). And this decision engraved on tables of stone he set up in the great church, and made it a capital offence for any one to teach otherwise. But the authority of this decree expired with the emperor, and Andronicus afterwards strictly prohibited all curious discussions on religion, and on this subject in particular.3

17. Near the close of his life the same emperor excited another controversy respecting the God of Mohammed. The catechetical books of the Greeks anathematized the oxócougov (spherical or globular shaped) and solid God of Mohammed. For thus the Greeks had translated the Arabic word elsemed, which is applied to God in

1 Nicetas Choniates, Annales, lib. vii. sec. v. p. 112, ed. Venice.

113.

Nicetas Choniates, Annales, lib. vii. sec. vi. p.

3 Nicetas, in Andronico, lib. ii. sec. v. p. 175.

18. Among the Latins different opinions were maintained, and not merely in the schools but also in books respecting the Lord's supper. For though all seemed disposed to shun connexion with Berengarius, yet many were not very far from him in sentiment, among whom may be named Rupert of Duytz and others, inasmuch as the great Berengarian controversy had not yet plainly determined the mode of Christ's presence. This same Rupert was involved likewise in other controversies, and especially with Anselm of Laon and William of Champeaux, and with their disciples after their death respecting the will and omnipotence of God. The question was whether God wills and himself effects whatever takes place, or whether he only permits certain things which he would not have to be. Rupert maintained the latter, his opponents the former. He was also censured for teaching, among other erroneous things, that the angels were created from darkness, and that Christ at the last supper did not present his body to Judas.7

19. Besides these and other private contests, there was a public controversy, about the year 1140, respecting what is called the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.

4 Reland, De Religione Mohammedica, lib. ii. sec. iii. p. 142. [This word elsemed occurs in the Koran, Sur. cxii. where all modern translators as well as the Mohammedan expositors understand it to mean eternal. The passage, as translated by Sale, is this: "Say, God is one God, the eternal God; he begetteth not, neither him." It is probable that the Greek translator peris he begotten; and there is not any one like unto verted the meaning of Mohammed, in order to render

him ridiculous.-Mur.

5 Nicetas Choniates, Annales, lib. vii. p. 113-116. Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 30, &c. saur. Anecdotor. tom. 1. p. 290; Mabillon, Annales 7 See Mengoz, Epistola, published by Martene, TheBenedict. [tom. v. p. 623, &c.] tom. vl. p. 20, 42, 168, 261, &c.

8 The defenders of the immaculate conception maintained that the Virgin Mary was conceived in the womb of her mother with the same purity which is attributed to Christ's conception in her womb.-Macl.

At this time some French congregations the veneration for the virgin Mary, which began to observe the festal day consecrated had before been excessive, was not a little to this conception; the English had ob- increased after it began to be extensively served it for some time previously, being led inculcated that she was conceived immato it as is reported by Anselm of Canter- culately. For although Bernard and others bury. Of the more distinguished churches, opposed this doctrine as has been stated, that of Lyons was the first or among the yet the judgment of the ignorant and sufirst to observe this festival. St. Bernard perstitious multitude was much more effecbeing informed of the matter addressed a tive, than the decisions of the better letter to the canons of Lyons on the sub-informed; and about the year 1138 a ject, in which he severely censured their solemn festival was instituted in honour of conduct and opposed the idea of such a this conception, though neither the author conception. This brought on the contro- nor the place of this new solemnity is suffiversy; some standing forth in defence of ciently known.3 the Lyonnois and the festival, and others supporting the opinion of St. Bernard.1 In this century, however, though the feelings of the parties grew warm, there was some moderation in the discussion. But after the Dominicans had fixed themselves in the university of Paris, the controversy was carried on with far more violence; the Dominicans defending the opinion of St. Bernard, and the university approving the practice of the church of Lyons.

CHAPTER IV.

HISTORY OF RITES AND CEREMONIES.

1. THAT both the public and private worship of God among the Greeks through the influence of superstition, was enriched with various additional minute rites, is well attested. And the same passion infected

all the Christian communities of the East. Every distinguished individual among the patriarchs of the Greeks, the Nestorians, or the Jacobites, wished to immortalize himself by some change or amplification of the forms of worship. For, from various causes the spirit of true religion and piety being nearly extinct, their whole attention was directed to its external signs. One therefore ordered the prayers to be recited in a new manner, another changed the mode of singing, another ordained some new honours to be paid to the relics and images of the saints, and another endeavoured to improve the dress and manners of the priests.

2. What rites prevailed among the Latins in this century and how they were interpreted, may be learned from Rupert of Duytz, De Divinis Officiis. The plan of this work does not admit of a detailed account of the additions to the public ceremonials. We therefore only remark that

1 See Bernard's Epistolæ, clxxiv. tom. i. p. 170, &c.; Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 135: Mabillon, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 327; Colonia, Hist. Littér, de la Ville de Lyon, tome ii. p. 233, &c. 2 We may add a few things to render the account more full. The adorning of churches with pictures and

CHAPTER V.

HISTORY OF HERESIES.

1. THE Greeks and the other Oriental

Christians of this century had sharp contests with various sorts of fanatics, who are represented as believing in a twofold Trinity, as rejecting matrimony and the eating of flesh, as despising all external worship of God, even baptism and the Lord's Supper, and as placing the life of religion exclusively in prayer, and holding that an evil demon dwells in the nature of all men which they must expel by incessant prayer. The author of this sect we are told was one Lucopetrus, whose principal disciple, Tychicus, is said to have put false interpretations upon many parts of the

precious objects was carried farther and farther. Even the floors were painted and adorned with saints and angels. New churches were consecrated with sprinkling, inscriptions, anointing, lighting up candles, and with a blessing, perhaps also with singing. The decayed altars which were repaired must be consecrated anew. More than one altar was now to be found in the same church, for mention is made of the high altar. Altars were ornamented with gold, silver, precious stones, and costly pictures. Before the saints and images in the churches expensive lamps and candles were kept burning, which were to be put out only during three days preceding Easter. Baptism was no longer administered as formerly at certain seasons of the year, but as often as there were subjects presented. The holy supper was still given in both the elements. Clement III. ordained that none but unleavened bread should be used, and that the wine should be mixed with water. The bad custom of immersing the bread in the cup and then distributing it still continued. The doctrine of transubstantiation was very generally received in the Latin churches, and the adoration of the host was a natural consequence.-Von Einem. [We are informed by Alberic in his Chronicon, ad ann. 1200, that the Cistercian abbot Guido, whom the Pope had created a cardinal and despatched as his legate to Cologne, first introduced the practice at the elevation of the host in the mass, on a signal given by a bell, for the ture until the benediction on the cup; and that these people to prostrate themselves and remain in that posbells attended the clergy in the administration of the sacrament to the sick, to give the signal for prostration. This new rite was also confirmed by a miracle; for a soldier prostrated himself in the mud to honour the sacrament as it passed along, and his clothes were not soiled.-Schl.

3 Mabillon, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 327, 412; Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p. 1198.

calmness. There were two principal sects among these Cathari. The one approached near to Manichæism and maintained two eternal first causes of all things, the God of light who was the father of Jesus Christ, and the prince of darkness by whom they supposed the visible world was created; the other party maintained but one first cause, the father of Jesus Christ and the supreme God, by whom they affirmed the first matter was produced; but they added

true religion of the gospel was lost, and they desired and attempted its restoration. But very few of them were competent to so great an undertaking as that of reforming the prevailing religion; for most of them were deficient both in talents and learning, and living in those times of ignorance they did not understand the Bible. Hence they were often as far from the religion of Christ, as taught in the sacred volume, as they were from the Roman religion, which they were so extravagant in censuring and re-to this that the evil demon, after his revolt forming.

4. Among the sects of this age the first place is due to the Cathari, who have already been mentioned. Proceeding from Bulgaria they raised disturbance in nearly all the countries of Europe; and in all of them if apprehended, they were miserably put to death. The religion of this sect had some affinity with that anciently professed by the Gnostics and Manichæans; and hence those who belonged to it were generally called by that name, though they differed on many points from the genuine Manichæans. They all agreed in the following opinions: That evil originates from matter, that the creator of this world was a different being from the supreme God, that Christ had not a real body, nor was he truly born or crucified, that all human bodies are the work of an evil demon, and that they perish without a prospect of resuscitation; they denied that baptism and the holy supper are of any use; they enjoined an austere and rigorous mode of living, abstinence from flesh and all animal substances, from wine, and matrimony; they despised the books of the Old Testament and reverenced only the New Testament, especially the four Gospels; and to pass over several things, they believed that rational souls by a lamentable misfortune are enclosed in these bodies, and must be liberated from them by continence, fasting, coarse fare, and other mortifications.2

5. These sentiments, which they held in common, were explained and defined differently by their teachers, so that they were divided among themselves into sects; which however, as they were all subject to persecution, disputed with moderation and

See the compilations of D'Argentre, in his Collectio Judiciorum de Novis Erroribus, tom. i. to which however much more might be added respecting this universally persecuted and exterminated set of men. [For the history of this sect in the preceding century, see p. 385, &c.-Mur.

Besides the writers hereafter quoted, see a Disputatio inter Catholicum et Paterinum, published by Martene, Thesaur. Anecdotor. tom. v. p. 1703, &c. and Bonacursus, Manifestatio Haresis Catharorum, in D'Achery's Spicilegium, tom. 1. p. 203, &c.

from God, digested and separated this matter into the four elements, so that it could be formed into a world. The former held also that Christ, clad in celestial flesh, descended into Mary and received nothing from her substance; while the latter believed that Christ assumed in Mary, though not from Mary, a body which was not real but imaginary.3 The sect which maintained two first causes was denominated, from the place where its principal bishop resided, the sect of Albano or the Albanensians; and it was subdivided into the adherents of Balazinansa, bishop of Verona, and the adherents of John de Lugio, bishop of Bergamo. The sect which maintained one first cause was divided into the church of Bagnolo, which is a town of Provence, and the association of Concorregio or Concorrezzo. To the church of Bagnolo or Baiolo belonged the community which resided in France, and bore the name of Albigensians.*

3 Sce Moneta's Summa adversus Catharos et Waldissertation prefixed, De Catharis, but which is of no denses, published by Richini, Rome, 1743, fol. with a great value. Moneta was a respectable writer for the See lib. i. p. 2, 5, lib. ii. p. 247, age in which he lived. &c. [Moneta is in general the best historical writer on this subject. He was of Cremona and of the earliest Dominicans, after having been long a professor at Bologna. He was still alive A.D. 1233.-Schl. 4 Reinerius Saccho, Summa de Catharis et Leonistis, in Martene's Thesaurus Anecdot. tom. v. p. 1761, 1768. [Rayner himself lived seventeen years among the Cathari, and was a leader among them, which gives much weight to his history.-Schl.] Peregrinus Prisclanus in Muratori's Antiq. Ital. Medii Evi, tom. v. P. 93, where he gives a tabular view of the differences between these sects; yet he erroneously denominates those Albanenses whom he should have called Alb!perhaps it was a mistake of the printer. The opinions genses, and who were a branch of the Baiolensians: of these Baiolensians or Bagnolensians may also be well learned from the Coder Inquisitorius, published by Limborch, with his Historia Inquisitionis. But what Limborch has himself written concerning the opinions of the Albigensians (Hist. Inquis. lib. i. cap. viii. p. 30, &c.) is inaccurate, and not free from errors. I have spent much time in examining these sects, and disci minating among them; a subject which the partialities of authors and other causes have greatly obscured. But there is not room here to enlarge. [According to a note of Fuessli, in his Kirchen und Ketzerhistorie der mittlern Zeit, vol. i. p. 128 (whose correctness however I cannot judge of), the Albigensians here mentioned must not be confounded with the Albigensians who appeared in Languedoc; for they lived at Alby in Montferrat.-Schl. [According to Rayr.er

II. That

6. The internal arrangements of this they come to the use of reason. church had many singularities, which can-it is not proper to build churches, and that not be explained in a narrow compass. such as are built should be pulled down. The government was administered by bi- III. That the holy crosses ought to be shops; but each of these had two vicars destroyed. IV. That the body and blood attached to him, one of whom was called of Christ are not distributed in the sacred the elder and the other the younger son. supper, but only the signs of them. V. The other teachers or priests were called That the oblations, prayers, and good (Diaconi) ministers.1 All these, but espe- works of the living, do not profit the cially the bishops and their sons, were held dead. in immense veneration. And as their moral principles were peculiarly rigid and austere, and not suitable nor tolerable to all, it was necessary to divide their people, as the Manichæan congregations were anciently divided, into two classes, the comforted (consolati), and the associated or confederated (fœderati). The former exhibited a great show of piety, and led in celibacy a life of peculiar rigour and destitute of all common gratifications and conveniences. The latter, except observing a few rules, lived in the manner of other people; but they entered into a covenant which in Italian was called covenenza, that before they died, or at least in their last sickness, they would enter farther into the church and receive the consolation, which was their term for initiation.2

7. Of far better character than these was the presbyter Peter de Bruys, who about the year 1110 attempted a restoration of true religion in Languedoc and Provence, provinces of France; and having drawn many to follow him, after journeying and labouring for twenty years, was burned by the enraged populace at St. Giles, A.D. 1130. The whole system of doctrines inculcated by this Peter upon his followers, who from him were called Petrobrussians, is not known; yet there are five of his opinions which have reached us: I. That persons ought not to be baptized until

there were sixteen communities or associations of Cathari; namely, the Albanensians or those of Donnezacho, the members of which were at Verona and in other parts of Lombardy, about 500 in all; those of Concorrezzo, spread over all Lombardy, and more than 1,500 in number; those of Basolo, at Mantua, Brescia, Bergamo, and in Milan; others at Vicenza, or in the margravate; in the territory of Florence; in the valley of Spoleto; the French at Verona and in Lombardy; at Toulouse; at Carcassone; in the region of Albi; the Slavonians; the Latins at Constantinople; the Greeks there; those at Philadelphia in Romania; the Burgalic and the Duguntic. In the whole world there were at that time not quite 4,000 Cathari. See Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. vol. xxix. p. 484.- Mur.

See Relnerius Saccho, Summa de Catharis, p. 1766, &c.

2 These statements may be substantiated from the writers who have been mentioned, especially from the Codex Inquisit. Tolosana, and others. [For a more full account of the Cathari, see Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xxix. p. 477, &c.; also the summary account by Neander, Der heilige Bernard u. sein Zeitalter, p.

235, 248.-Mur.

8. He was followed by one Henry, perhaps an Italian,' an eremite monk, the parent of the sect of the Henricians.5 From Lausanne, a city of Switzerland, he came to Mans; and being driven thence, he travelled through Poictiers, Bourdeaux, and the adjacent regions, and at last in the year 1147 came to Toulouse. Everywhere he boldly declaimed against the vices of the clergy and the defects of the prevailing religion, with the applause of the multitude. When ejected from Toulouse by St. Bernard, he took to flight; but was apprehended by some bishop, brought before Eugene III. the Roman pontiff, then holding a council at Rheims, and by him committed to prison, A.D. 1148, where he soon after died." An accurate account of the doctrines of this man has also not come down to us. We only know that he too disapproved of infant baptism, inveighed severely against

most the only source of all that is known of Peter de

3 See Peter the Venerable, Contra Petrobrusianos, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 346, &c.; Basnage, Hist. in the Bibliotheca Cluniacens, p. 1117; Mabillon, des Eglises Réformées, period iv. p. 140, &c. [See also Schroeckh, Kirchengesch. tom. xxix. p. 515, &c. AlBruys and his doctrine is the epistle or tract of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, written expressly to This tract is printed in the Biblioth. Cluniacens. Paris, 1614, fol. p. 1117-1230; and in the Biblioth. Max. Patrum Lugdunens. tom. xxii. p. 1032, &c. The author states and confutes in as many chapters the five errors mentioned by Mosheim; and he says these were the chief errors disseminated by Peter de Bruys, though his disciple Henry advanced a great many others.-Mur. [See Neander's view of this individual in his Der heil. Bernard u. sein Zeitalter, Wrench's transl. p. 265, &c.-R.

confute the errors of Peter de Bruys, about A.D. 1141.

4 This is the conjecture of Mabillon in his Preface to the works of St. Bernard, sec. 6; but Henry may have been a Swiss, as Fuessli supposes, ubi supra, p. 214.- Schl.

5 This name occurs often in a different application, denoting the adherents to the emperor Henry IV. in his contest with the popes respecting investitures. For, as is well known, the pope declared the principles of Henry in respect to investitures to be heresy; and his son, Henry V. had to adjure expressly the Henrician heresy. Thus, e.g. are his adherents denominated in the Acts of the council of Quedlinburg (Quintilmoburgense), A.D. 1085, in Harzheim's Concil. Germ. tom. iii. p. 200.-Schl.

• Gesta Episcopor. Cenomanensium, in Mabillon's Analecta Veteris Evi, p. 315, &c. new ed. The epistle of Gaufrid inserted in the close of the sixth book of Mabillon's Life of St. Bernard, in the Opp. Bernardi, tom. ii. p. 1207; Matth. Paris, Historia Major, p. 71; Mabillon, Preface to the Opp. Bernardi, sec. 6; Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 346, 420, 434.