Monaldus, a Dalmatian of Justinianople, a Franciscan and archbishop of Benevento, died about A.D. 1332. His Summa Casuum Conscientiæ, called Aurea and Monaldina was published, Lyons, 1516, 8vo.

Bartholomew of St. Concordia, a Dominican monk of Pisa, died 1347. His Summa Casuum Conscientiae (written in 1318), and his Sermones Quadrigesimales, were both printed Lyons, 1519, 8vo.

Thos. Walleis, a Welchman, Dominican, and theologian of Oxford, often confounded with Thos. Jorsius, an Englishman and cardinal who died in 1311. He maintained before the papal court at Avignon A.D. 1332, that deceased saints are admitted to the immediate vision of God. and accused John XXII. of heresy on this subject. His Articuli Hæreticales and Libellus De Theoria Prædicandi, have been published.

Richard Buriensis, born at St. Edmundsbury, Suffolk, educated at Oxford, tutor to Edward III. bishop of Durham A.D. 1333, chancellor of England 1334, lord treasurer 1336, died 1345, aged 59. He founded a library at Oxford, and wrote A.D. 1344, Philobiblion, seu Liber de Amore Librorum et Bibliothecarum Institutione, frequently printed, e.g. Oxon. 1599, 4to.

Benedict XII. pope A.D. 1334-1312, has left us many epistles and bulls.

Simon Fidatus de Cassia, an Italian Augustinian monk, abbot at Florence A.D. 1335, till his death in 1348. Distinguished for sanctity, and as a preacher, he wrote Enarrationes Evangelica Veritatis seu de Gestis Domini Salvatoris, ed. Cologne, 1540, fol. a tract De B. Virgine, another De Speculo Crucis, and several epistles.

Gulielmus de Baldensel, a knight of Jerusalem, composed A.D. 1337 his Hodocporicon, or Journal of his travels in the Holy Land, published by Canisius, Lection. Antiq. tom. v. par. ii. p. 96.

Arnaldus Cescomes, archbishop of Tarragona, A.D. 1337, wrote Epistolæ Duce de Saracenis ab Hispania pellendis, extant in Baluze, Miscell. tom. ii.

Richard Hampolus, D.D. an Augustinian eremite of Yorkshire, who died A.D. 1349. He wrote a tract on Repentance, and brief expositions of the Psalter, the canticles of the Old Testament included in the public offices, on the 20th Psalm, on the Lord's prayer, the Apostles' and the Athanasian creeds, some parts of Solomon's Songs, the Lamentations, some chapters of Job, &c. which are in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xxvi. Robert Holkat of Northampton, a Dominican, and professor of theology at Oxford, died A.D. 1359. He wrote a commentary on the Sentences (ed. Lyons, 1497, fol. 1510, 4to), Moralitates pulchre Historiarum (ed. Paris, 1510, 8vo), 213 Lectures on the Book of the Wisdom of Solomon (ed. Venice, 1509, 1586, fol.) Lectures on the Canticles and Seven Chapters of Ecclesiastes (ed. Venice, 1509), Commentaries on the Book of Proverbs (ed. Paris, 1515), a tract on the imputability of Sin, and Conferences on the Sentences, &c. (ed. Lyons, 1479, fol. 1518). Several other of his works are still in manuscript.

Philip de Monte Calerio, a Franciscan, first at Toulouse and then at Padua; flourished A.D. 1340. His Conciones Dominicales totius anni (abridged), and Quadrigesimale, Conciones de Eucharistia, and Sermones de Sanctis, were published, Lyons, 1515.

Henry de Urimaria or De Trimaria, a German Augustinian eremite, and doctor of theology at Paris, flourished A.D. 1340, and was distinguished for his piety and his liberality. He wrote additions to the Books of Sentences, on a Fourfold Instinct, and several sermons, published, Cologne, 1513, Paris, 1514.

Lupoldus Babenbergius, a noble German, a jurist, professor of civil and canon law, and bishop of Bamberg A.D. 1310. His tracts, De Zelo Veterum Regum Galliæ et Germaniæ Principum, and De Juribus legni et Imperii, were published, Paris, 1540, Cologne, 1564, 8vo, &c. often.

Alvarua Pelagius or Pelaglus Alvarus, a Spanish Franciscan, who studied at Bologna, Pisa, and Paris A.D. 1304, was papal penitentiary in 1332, and after wards a bishop in Portugal. He wrote De Planctu Ecclesia, (ed. Venice, 1560), Summa Theologia, (ed. Ulm, 1474), and other works never printed.

Bartholomew of Urbino, an Italian Augustinian cremite, and bishop of Urbino, died A.D. 1350. He collected flowers of Augustine and of Ambrose, which he published, each under the title of Milleloquium. Both were printed at Lyons, the former in 1555 and the latter in 1556.

John Honsemius, a canon, and teacher at Liege, A.D. 1348. He continued Egidius' History of the bishops of Liege, from A.D. 1247 to 1348.

John Becan, a canon of the church of Utrecht, A.D. 1350. He wrote a chronicle of the church and bishops of Utrecht, and of the counts of Holland, from St. Willibrord to A.D. 1346, which was continued by William Hedam, dean of Harlaem, to A.D. 1524, both printed, Utrecht, 1643, fol.

Albericus de Rosate, an Italian doctor of canon law, A.D. 1350. He wrote Dictionarium Juris Civilis et Canonici, ed. Venice, 1573, 1601, commentaries on the Liber sextus Decretalium, De Testibus, and other tracts.

Roger of Conway or Connovius, D.D. an English Franciscan, educated at Oxford, and provincial of his order for England. In the dispute between the mendicants and the regular clergy, respecting the right to hear confessions A.D. 1350, Roger appeared in behalf of his order in a work, De Confessionibus per Regulures audiendis, published by Goldast, Monarch. tom. ii.

Petrus de Columbario, cardinal bishop of Ostia, sent by the pope to anoint and crown the emperor Charles IV. at Rome; of which mission he wrote the history, entitled Historia Itineris Romani, in Labbé's Biblioth. Nov. Manus. tom. i. p. 354.

Nicolaus Eymericus, a Spanish Dominican, Inquisi. tor general for Aragon, 1356, chaplain and supreme judge at Avignon in 1371, died in 1399. His Directorium Inquisitorum, with the notes of Francis Pegna, was published, Venice, 1595, fol. Rome, 1578 and 1587.

Ranulph Higden or Hikeden, or of Chester, an English Benedictine monk of Chester, who died A.D. 1363, having been a monk 64 years. He compiled a universal history from the creation to A.D. 1357, entitled Polychronicon. This history John de Trevisa translated into English, A.D. 1387, and that translation, with some amendment of the style, was printed by William Caxton, Lond. 1482, fol.

Alphonsus Vargas, a Spanish Augustinian eremite, a doctor of Paris, bishop of Badajos and archbishop of Seville, where he died A.D. 1359. His commentary on the first book of the Sentences was printed, Venice, 1490, and his Quæstiones in Aristotelis libros tres de Anima, Venice, 1566.

Thomas Stubbs or Stobæus, D.D. an English Dominican monk of York, who flourished A.D. 1360, and died after 1373. He wrote the lives or a chronicle of the archbishops of York, from St. Paulinus, the first archbishop, to the year 1373, published among the Scriptores Decem Anglia, Lond. 1652, fol.

John Calderinus, a famous canonist of Bologna, A.D. 1360, who wrote several works on canon law, published in the 16th century.

Peter Berchorius, a Benedictine monk, born at Poictiers, and abbot at Paris, where he died A.D. 1362. He wrote Dictionarium seu Repertorium morale Biblicum, (containing numerous biblical words and phrases, alphabetically arranged and explained, for the use of practical religion), Rectorium. Morale Utriusque Testamenti, (containing tropological and allegorical expositions of nearly the whole bible); and Inductorium Morale. The three works have been frequently printed, e.g. Cologne, 1620, 3 vols. fol.

Bartholomew de Glanvilla, an English Franciscan, who studied at Oxford, Paris, and Rome, flourished A.D. 1360, and wrote Opus de Proprietatibus Rerum seu Allegoriarum ac Tropologiarum in Utrumque Testamentum (on the figurative language of the bible), published with some other pieces frequently, e.g. Paris, 1574, 4to.

Nicolaus Oresmius or Orem, the coryphæus of the Parisian doctors in his time, tutor to the dauphin, rector of the Gymnasium of Navarre, dean of Rouen in 1361, and bishop of Lisieux in 1377. He died about A.D. 1384. In the year 1363 he preached a sermon before the pope and cardinals, in which he boldly attacked their vices (ed. by Flaccus Illyricus, Catalogus Testium Veritatis, p. 512). He wrote De Mutatione Monetæ, de Sphæra, and translated the Scriptures into French, and also Aristotle's Ethics, some works of Cicero, and some of Petrarch.

Hainricus, a German monk of Rebdorf about A.D. 1362, wrote Annals of Germany from A.D. 1295 to 1363, published by Freher, Histor. German. Francf. 1600, tom. i.

Saint Brigitta, a Swedish lady who had visions from

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CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

3. In explaining and inculcating the doctrines of religion, most of the Greeks and Latins followed the principles of the Peripatetic philosophy. And the Greeks, by their intercourse with the Latins, seem to have acquired some knowledge of the modes of teaching adopted in the schools of the Latins. The Greeks at the present day read in their own language? Thomas Aquinas and other distinguished scholastics, whom Demetrius Cydonius and others of this century had translated from Latin into Greek. The Latins who adopted this mode of theologizing were immensely numerous; the most distinguished of them for acumen were John Scotus, Durand of St. Porçain, William Occam, and a few others. Here and there an individual also applied the light of Scripture and of tradition to the explanation of divine truth, but these were overpowered and nearly silenced by the immense throng of the dialecticians.

1. ALL who acquaint themselves with the history of these times must acknowledge the corrupt state of religion, both as theoretically taught in the schools and as practically inculcated on the people. Almost no part of the Christian doctrine retained its native form and comeliness. And hence the Waldenses and all those who desired a reformation in religion and who separated from the Roman pontiff, though nowhere safe from the fury of the Inquisitors and the monks, yet could not by any means be suppressed. Many of these people, after witnessing the destruction of an immense number of their brethren at the stake and by other forms of execution, fled from Italy, France, and Germany, into Bohemia and the neighbouring countries, and afterwards became amalgamated with the Huss- 4. Yet there were not wanting pious and ites and other dissentients from the Romish good men not only among the mystics but community. others likewise, who censured this bold 2. At the head of the expositors of the manner of philosophizing on religious subBible stands Nicolaus De Lyra, 'who ex-jects, and who endeavoured to draw the plained the books of both the Old Testament and the New far better than was usual in that age; yet he succeeded better on the Old Testament than on the New, because he was familiar with Hebrew but not with Greek. The others who undertook this office were servile imitators of their predecessors. For they either collected flowers from the ancient doctors, or neglecting the literal import of the Scriptures drew from them by forced interpretations occult spiritual meanings. Those who desire to become acquainted with this exegetical art may consult the Moral Mirror of the whole Scriptures by Vitalis a Furno, or the Psalter spiritualized by Ludolphus Saxo. The philosophic divines who commented on the Scriptures often proposed and scientifically resolved questions of the most profound crudition, according to the views of that age.

Franciscus Ximenes of Catalonia, bishop of Perpignan, and titular patriarch of Jerusalem, A.D. 1400. He wrote several works of mystic divinity which have been published.

Franciscus Zabarella, an Italian of Padua, LL.D. a man of great respectability. He rejected two bishoprics and one rich abbacy, but was made cardinal A.D. 1411, presided through the council of Constance, and died at its close, A.D. 1417. He wrote comments on the Decretals, and several other works on canon law, and a tract De Schismatibus Authoritate Imperatoris Tollendis, which the Index Erpurgatorius prohibits being read till it is expurgated.-Mur.

Simon, Hist. des Principaux Commentateurs du N. T. p. 477.; and Critique de la Biblioth. Ecclés. de M. Du Pin, tome i. p. 352; Wadding's Annales Minor. tom. v. p. 264, &c. [For his character as a biblical expositor see Conybeare's Bampton Lectures for 1834, p. 210, &c.; and Davidson's Hermeneutics, p. 175, &c.-R.

attention of students in theology to the Holy Scriptures, and to the writings of the ancient fathers. Hence there were fierce disputes everywhere, but especially in the more distinguished universities, as those of Paris and Oxford, between the biblical theologians and the philosophical. The biblical party, though greatly inferior in numbers, sometimes gained the victory. For the philosophical divines, the most eminent of whom were mendicant monks, Dominicans, and Franciscans, by philosophizing indiscreetly not unfrequently so distorted and misrepresented the principal doctrines of revealed religion, as to subvert them and to advance opinions manifestly impious and absurd. The consequence was that some had to abjure their errors, others sought their safety by flight, the books of some were publicly burned, and others were thrown into prison. But as soon as the

2 Simon, Créance de l'Eglise Orientale sur la Transsubstantiation, p. 166.

3 See Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iv. in many passages. In the year 1340 various opinions of the scholastic tribe respecting the Trinity and other subjects were condemned: p. 266, A.D. 1347, Jo. de Mercuria and Nic. de Ultricuria had to abjure their opinions, p. 298, 308; A.D. 1348, one Simon was convicted of very great errors, p. 322; A.D. 1354, Guido, an Augustinian, shared the same fate, p. 329; and likewise A.D. 1362, one Lewis, p. 374, and Jo. de Calore, p. 377; and A.D. 1366, Dionys. Soullechat, p. 38. The same scenes took place at Oxford. Sec Wood's Antiq. Oxon. tom. 1. p. 153, 183, &c. [The student would do well to read, though with caution, the third of Hampden's Bampton Lectures on the influence of scholasticism in the treatment of the Trinitarian controversies.-R.

storm subsided, most of them now rendered | telligible extinction of all the powers and more cautious returned to their former views, faculties of the soul, and a transition of the and oppressed their adversaries by various mind into the divine nature; and who led arts, depriving them of their influence, away their adherents into a senseless kind their profits, and their number of pupils. of piety which bordered on licentiousness. 5. Moreover, the scholastic doctors or So great was the extravagance of these the philosophical divines had great contro- people, that the more sober mystics themversies among themselves on various sub- selves detested their doctrine and warned jects. Abundant matter for these contests their followers against it.3 was supplied by that very acute English Franciscan John Duns Scotus, who being envious of the Dominicans attacked certain doctrines of Thomas Aquinas, contending that they were untrue. The Dominicans united to defend the brother of their order, who was the oracle of the schools; and on the other hand, the Franciscans gathered around Scotus as a doctor descended from heaven. Thus the two most powerful orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans, were again pitted against each other; and those famous sects of the Scotists and Thomists were produced, which still divide the schools of the Latins. These schools disagree respecting the nature of divine co-operation, the measure of divine grace necessary to a man's salvation, the unity of form in man [or personal identity], and many other subjects which cannot be here enumerated. But nothing procured Scotus greater glory than his defence and demonstration, in opposition to the Dominicans, of what is called the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.'

6. In nearly every country of Europe lived and taught a great multitude of those called mystics. Some of them were good men and lovers of piety, who laboured to withdraw the minds of people from ceremonies and to guide them to real virtue and the love of God. Such were (though not all equally wise) John Tauler, John Ruysbrock, Henry Suso, and Gerhard of Zutphen, who must be acknowledged to have left us a considerable number of writings, suited to awaken pious emotions and to draw forth the soul towards God; though they all laboured under some infirmity of judgment, and were inclined to indulge their imaginations too far. But there were other mystics everywhere active, who were really beside themselves and actual fanatics; who dreamed of an unin

See Wadding's Annales Minor. tom. vi. p. 52, &c. [The doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary was, that she herself was miraculously conceived and born out of the course of nature, so as not to be a partaker of original sin.-Mur.

* Concerning these the reader may consult Poiret's Biblioth. Mysticorum [p. 108, 111, 146.-Schl.], and Arnold's History and Description of Mystic Theology [written in German, p. 395, 404, 414, 421]. Of Tauler and Suso, Echard treats particularly, Scriptores Prædic. tom. i. p. 653, 677. See also the Acta Sanctor. Januar. tom. ii. p. 654.

7. Concerning those who gave particular attention to moral theology, it is not necessary to say much, since their merit is nearly the same as that of those already mentioned. Yet two things may be noticed as illustrative of the state of this branch of theology. First, in this century a greater number than before collected and discussed what are called cases of conscience. The most noted of this class were Astesanus, an Italian, Monaldus, and Bartholomew of St. Concordia. This species of writing accorded well with the education given in the schools, which taught men not so much what to believe and how to live, as to question, to dispute, and to wrangle. Secondly, those who treated of the duties men owe to themselves and others, and who exhorted to the practice of them, were accustomed to derive arguments and illustrations from the brutes. For they first explained the prominent characteristics of some animal, and then applied them to the life and conduct of men. Of this description are John Nieder's Formicarius, Thomas of Brabant's treatise De Apibus, Hugo of S. Victor's Bestiarium, Thomas Walleis' De Natura Bestiarum cum Moralizatione, and some others."

8. In most of the defenders of Christianity we find nothing perspicuous, elegant, and praiseworthy. Yet Thomas Bradwardine, in his Book De Providentia, advances many ingenious and pertinent arguments in confirmation of the truth of religion in general. The Eye-salve of Faith against

3 John Ruysbrock inveighs strongly against them,

in his works published by Surius, p. 50, 378; and De Vera Contemplat. cap. xviii. p. 608.

4 John Nieder belonged to the following century. He was a German of Suabia, a Dominican, a prior of Basle, an Inquisitor, and rector of the gymnasium of Vienne. He flourished A.D. 1431, and died A.D. 1438. His works are, Consolatorium timorate Conscientia (ed. Rome, 1604, 8vo); Formicarius, seu Dialogus ad Vitam Christianam exemplo conditionum Formica Incitativus (ed. Douay, 1604, 8vo); Præceptorium (on the ten commandments, ed. Douay, 1614, 8vo); Alphabetum Divini Amoris, De Modo bene l'ivendi (ed. Rome, 1604, 8vo); De Reformatione Religiosorum (Antwerp, 1611, 8vo); De Contractibus, Mercatorum, and Sermons for the year. For Thomas of Brabant or Cantipratensis, see above p. 466, note 1. He flourished about the middle of the preceding century. Hugo de S. Victor lived in the 12th century. See p. 412, note 1. His work, De bestiis, is in his Opp. tom. ii. p. 418 (ed. Rouen, 1648, fol.) Thomas Walleis is noticed among the writers of this century, above, p. 512.- Mur.