20. The improvement of philosophy was attempted by several men of fine talents, both among the French and Italians, whose names have already been given. But their efforts were rendered ineffectual by the excessive attachment of the scholastic doctors to the old Aristotelian philosophy, and by the cautious timidity of many who were apprehensive that such freedom of thought and discussion might subvert the tottering interests of the church, and open the way for other and new dissensions. The empire of Aristotle, therefore, whose very obscurity rendered him the more acceptable, continued unshaken in all the schools and monasteries. It even became more firmly established after the Jesuits saw fit to subject their schools to it, and showed by their discussions and their books that the Aristotelian scholastic subtleties, equivocations, and intricacies were better suited to confound

is, Historia Ecclesiastica per aliquot Studiosos et Pios Viros in urbe Magdeburgica, Centuria xiii. [and its compilers are usually known by the name of the Magdeburg Centuriators.-R.] A new edition was commenced in 1757, at Nuremberg; [but was carried only to the sixth volume in 4to. An edition with some abridgment was published by Lucius, Basil, 1624, 13 vols. in 3, large folio. This edition is most current among the Reformed, though disapproved by the Lutherans. Mur.] Cæsar Baronius, a father of the oratory [at the instigation of Philip Neri, founder of the society of the oratory], undertook to confute this work, which contained strong historical proofs against popery, in a work of twelve volumes folio, each volume likewise embracing one century. His work is entitled Annales Ecclesiastici, and was published at Rome between the years 1588 and 1607, and afterwards at Mentz with the approbation of the author. The latest, most splendid, and most complete edition was published with the corrections of Antony Pagi, a French Franciscan (entitled, Critica Historico- Chronologica in Annales Baronii, 4 vols. fol.), and the continuation of Odoric Raynald (in 10 vols. fol.), at Lucca, 1738-1756, in 38 vols. fol. These ecclesiastical annals are by no means impartial; yet they contain numerous documents which cast light on both ecclesiastical and civil history. Raynald's continuation reaches to the year 1565. James de Laderchi, likewise a father of the oratory, extended the Annals to the year 1572. The apostate Reformed, Henry de Sponde or Spondanus, bishop of Pamiers, likewise composed a continuation of Baronius to the year 1640, in three volumes fol. So also the Polish Dominican, Abraham Bzovius, continued Baronius to the year 1572, in eight vols. folio; but he is the most faulty of all who have been named, both in respect to the matter and the spirit of his performance. Schl. [On these works, their authors, and their various editions, the English reader may consult Dowling's Introduction to the Study of Eccles. Hist. p. 103, &c. though he is somewhat prejudiced against the Reformed compilers. See also Schroeckh's Kirchenges. on the Centuriators, vol. i. p. 162, &c. and on Baronius, ib. p. 225, &c.; Sagitarius, Introductio in Hist. Eccles. sive Notitia Scriptorum qui Hist. illustrant. Jena, 1718, vol. i.; on the Centuriators, chap. xiii. p. 240, &c.; and on Baronius, chap. xiv. p. 282, &c.—R.

The

21. Of the theological writers in the Romish church during this century, a very large catalogue might be made out. most famous and most competent among them were Thomas de Vio or Cajetan, John Eck, John Cochlæus, Jerome Einser, Laurence Surius, Stanislaus Hosius, John Faber, James Sadolet, Albert Pighi, Francis Vatablus, Melchior Canus, Claud Espencæus, Bartholomew Caranza, John Maldonate, Francis Turrianus, Benedict Arias Montanus, Ambrose Catharinus, Reginald Pole, Sixtus Senensis, George Cassander, James Paya Andradius, Michael Baius, James Pamelius, and others.1

22. The religion which Rome would have

the reader may consult Louis Ellies du Pin, a doctor 1 Concerning these and others designedly omitted, of the Sorbonne, in his Bibliothèque des Auteurs Ecclésiast. tome xiv. and xvi. and the other writers of biography. [The following brief notices of the writers mentioned by Mosheim may not be unacceptable.

Of Cajetan, see above, p. 568, notes 3 and 4.

in Swabia, A.D. 1483; was professor of theology at John Eckius or Mayer was born at Eck, a village Ingolstadt, vice-chancellor, inquisitor, and canon of Eichstadt, and died 1543. He disputed and wrote much against Luther and the Protestants.

The real name of Cochlæus was John Dobeneck surnamed Cochlæus from the Latinized name of hi birthplace, Wendelstein in Nuremberg. Hs was a dear at Frankfort, and a canon at Mentz and Breslau, an died in 1552; a most rancorous and uncandid oppose of the Reformation

Emser was of Ulm in Swabia, and died in 1527. He was a licentiate of canon law, criticised Luther's version of the New Testament, and undertook to make a better.

Surius was a laborious Carthusian monk of Lubec, and died at Cologne in 1578. Besides his translations, he published four volumes of the Councils, and seren volumes of lives of the saints, and wrote a concise general history from A.D. 1500 to 1574, in opposition to Sleidan's Commentaries.

Hosius was of Cracow, and at his death in 1579, was bishop of Ermeland, cardinal, and grand penitentiary to pope Gregory XIII. He acted a conspicuous part in the council of Trent, was a manly opposer of the Reformation, and left works in 2 vols. fol.

Faber was a Swabian named Heigerlin, but was called Faber from his father's occupation. He was a Dominican, and opposed the sale of indulgences in Switzerland; yet aided the pope against the Protestants, and became bishop of Vienna. None of his writings are now read.

Sadolet was a mild, liberal divine, secretary to Leo X. bishop of Carpentras, and a cardinal. His works were printed at Verona, 1737, 4 vols. fol.

Pighi was a Dutchman, archdeacon at Utrecht, a mathematician, and a man of more reading than judgment, and died in 1542.

Vatablus of Picardy was a learned professor of Hebrew at Paris in the reign of Francis I.

Canus, a Spanish Dominican, professor of theology at Salamanca, bishop of the Canary Islands, provincial of his order in Castile, and died in 1560. His chief work was his Loci Communes, in twelve books.

Espencæus was a famous Parisian divine of great erudition, who died in 1571.

Caranza was a Dominican, confessor to Philip II. of Spain, to queen Mary of England, and to Charles V. also archbishop of Toledo; yet he was charged with heresy, suffered ten years in the Inquisition, and

men regard as the only true religion, and which she enjoins on all Christians universally, is derived, as all their writers tell us from two sources-the written Word of God and the unwritten, or the holy Scripturos and tradition. But as there are warm contests among the leading divines of that church respecting the legitimate interpreter of this twofold Word of God, it may be justly said that it is not yet clear whence a knowledge of the Romish doctrines is to be learned, or by what authority controversies on sacred subjects are to be decided. The Romish court indeed, and all who favour the absolute dominion of the pontiff, maintain that no one can interpret and explain the import of either divine word in matters relating to salvation, except the person who governs the church as Christ's vicegerent; and of course, that his decisions must be religiously obeyed. To give weight to this opinion, first Pius IV. and afterwards Sixtus V. established at Rome the congregation styled the Congregation for Interpreting the Council of Trent (De Interpretando Tridentino Concilio), which decides, in the name of the pontiff, the smaller questions respecting points of discipline; but the

weightier questions touching any point of doctrine it refers to the pontiff himself as the oracle.1 But a very different opinion is entertained both by the greatest part of the French and by other men of great learning, who maintain that individual doctors and bishops may go directly to both sources, and from them obtain for themselves and for the people rules of faith and practice; and that the greater and more difficult questions of controversy are to be submitted to the examination and decision of councils. There is no judge who can terminate this controversy; and hence there is no prospect that the Romish religion will ever obtain a stable and determinate form.

23. The council of Trent, which is said to have been summoned to explain, arrange, and reform both the doctrine and the discipline of the church, is thought by wise men to have rather produced new enormities than to have removed those which existed. They complain that many opinions of the scholastic doctors, concerning which in former times men thought and spoke as they pleased, were improperly sanctioned and placed among the doctrines necessary to be believed, and even guarded by anathemas; they complain of the ambiguity of the decrees and decisions of the council, in

Montanus was a Spanish Orientalist, and editor of the Antwerp Polyglot Bible. He also wrote commentaries on the Scriptures, and died in 1598.

Catharinus of Sienna in Italy was first a jurist, then a Dominican, bishop of Minorca, and lastly archbishop of Conza in the kingdom of Naples. He wrote against the Protestants, commented on Paul's epistles, and died in 1553.

Cardinal Pole was of royal English blood, opposed king Henry VIII. in the matter of his divorce, and left England; but returned as papal legate on the accession of Queen Mary, was made archbishop of Canterbury, and died on the very day his sovereign did, A.D. 1558. He was learned, discreet, and inclined to moderation. His letters were published by cardinal Quirini at Brescia, in 1744.

Sixtus of Sienna was born a Jew, became a Franciscan, was accused of heresy, joined the Dominicans, and died in 1569. His Bibliotheca Sancta, or Introduction to Biblical Literature, is the chief foundation of his reputation. Cassander was born on the island of Cassand near Bruges, and was a modest, ingenuous divine, who studied to bring the Catholics and Protestants to a better agreement, and incurred the ill-will of both. He died in 1566, and his works were printed at Paris in 1616, fol.

Andradius was a Portuguese theologian who attended the council of Trent, and attempted to vindicate its proceedings against Chemnitz's attack.

Baius was doctor and professor of theology at Lourain, chancellor of the university, general inquisitor for the Netherlands, and a strong adherent of the doctrines of Augustine, which brought him into difficulty, as we shall see presently in section 38 of this chapter. He died in 1589.

Pamelius was a modest and honest theologian of the Netherlands, whose father, Adolphus, baron of Pamele, was counsellor of state to Charles V. He died on his way to take possession of his new office of bishop of St. Omer, A.D. 1587. He edited the works of Tertullian and of Cyprian.- Mur.

1 Aymon, Tableau de la Cour de Rome, par. v. cap. iv. p. 282, &c. [This congregation affords the pope a fine opportunity to obtrude his court decisions on the Catholic world, under the pretence of the council of Trent. It is the duty of the cardinals to explain the language of the council only in doubtful cases; but they often extend the import of the words so far that the pope finds the way open to introduce new laws into the church. See Fabronius, De Statu Ecclesiæ, cap. v. sec. iii. no. 7.-Schl. [The canonists long debated whether the decisions of this congregation formed a part of the ecclesiastical law of the Catholic church. Those who maintained that they were not law urged unanswerably that those decisions were not published; and that rules of conduct not made known could never be considered as laws by which men were to be judged. To remove this objection, in the year 1739 formal reports of the decisions of the congregation began to be published, reaching back to the year 1718; and the publication of these reports was continued to the year 1769, when thirty-eight volumes 4to had been issued, embracing all the decisions of importance from the year 1718 to the year 1769 inclusive.--Mur.

2 Such as, for example, Peter Lombard's doctrine of the seven sacraments, the necessity of auricular confession, the canonical authority of the apocryphal books, &c.; and by the anathema pronounced against the opposite doctrines, the reintroduction of these supposed heresies into the church and all attempts at a religious union in future are rendered impossible.-Schl

3 The reader need only consult the second article concerning justification and free-will. The council here frequently expresses itself according to the views of Luther; but presently it takes back with one hand what it had given with the other. This arose from the disputes of the fathers in the council among themselves. The only way to quiet their contentions was to publish articles of faith so ambiguous that each party could construe them to agree with their own opinions. Hence it is that to this day the council is so differently inter

A

complain that everything was decided in the council, not according to truth and the holy Scriptures but according to the directions of the Roman pontiff, and that the Romish legates took from the fathers of the council almost all liberty of correcting existing evils in the church; they complain that the few decisions which were wise and correct were left naked and unsupported, and are neglected and disregarded with impunity; in short, they think the council of Trent was more careful to subserve the interests of the papal dominion than the general interests of the Christian

preted in the Romish church. Hence the Spanish Dominican, Dominic Soto, wrote three books to prove that the council was of his opinion on the subject of grace and justification; while the Franciscan, Andrew Vega, whose opinions were very different, wrote fifteen to prove directly the contrary. So is it also in regard to the doctrine respecting the penitence necessary to repentance. The Jesuits say this penitence consists in an internal fear of God and a dread of divine punishments which they call attrition. Their opposers maintain that this is not sufficient, but that true penitence must arise from love to God and regret for having sinned against him. This dispute is not decided by the council, for one passage appears to deny what another asserts. And hence Launoi wrote a book, De Mente Concilii Tridentini circa Contritionem, Attritionem, et Satisfactionem, in Sacramento Pœnitentiæ; and he there shows that the words of the council may be fairly construed as every one pleases. The doctrines concerning the church, and concerning the power of the pope and its limits, are for good reasons left undecided. So also the contested doctrines concerning the conception and birth of the Virgin Mary, and the real nature of the worship to be paid to images and to the saints. The doctrine respecting tradition is likewise made very equivocal and obscure.-Schl.

I No pope indeed was personally present in the council, but they still governed it by their legates. Nothing was permitted to be discussed without the consent of the legates; and no conclusion was made which had not been previously prepared and shaped in the particular congregations [or committees] in which the legates always presided. Hence the satirists said that the Holy Ghost (by whom, according to the court language of the church, such councils are always guided) was brought from Rome in a portmanteau in order to enlighten the fathers. There were in fact several intelligent and thinking men among the fathers of the council, but they were outvoted by the multitude of Italians and dependants of the pope.- Schl. [The person who made use of the profane metaphor alluded to in this note was Andrew Dudycz, at one time bishop of Tinia in Hungary and a member of the council of Trent, but who afterwards married and joined the Reformed church. He died in 1589. See more of him in Sec. iii. part ii. chap. iv. p. 705, below. In his oration to the emperor, Maximilian II. explaining his reasons for resigning his bishopric, he thus expressed himself respecting the management of that council: "Erant episcopi illi conductii plerique, ut utres, rusticorum musicum instrumentum, quos, ut vocem mittant, inflare necesse est. Nil habuit cum illo conventu S. Spiritus commercii; omnia erant humana concilia, quæ in immodica, et sane quam pudenda Pontificum tuenda dominatione consumebantur. Cursitabant Romam nocte dieque veredarii, omnia quæ dicta consultaque essent, quam celerrime ad Papam deferebantur. Illinc responsa tanquam Delphis aut Dodona, expectabantur; illinc nimirum Spiritus ille S. quem suis conciliis præesse jactant, tabellarii manticis inclusus, mittebatur: qui, quod admodum ridiculum est, cum aliquando, ut fit, aquæ pluviis excrescebant, non ante advolare poterat, quam inundationes desedissent. Ita fiebat, ut Spiritus non super aquas, ut est in Genesi, sed secus aquas ferretur. See Reuter's Orationes Dudithii in Concil. Trident. habita, &c. Offenb. 1710, 4to, p. 40.—R.

church. And hence it is not strange that there should be some among the sons of the Romish church who choose to expound the decrees of the Tridentine council itself according to the sense of the sacred volume and tradition, and that the authority of those decrees should be differently estimated in the different Catholic countries.2

24. Recourse must be had to the decrees of the council of Trent, together with the brief confession of faith which Pius IV. caused to be drawn up, by all those who would gain a tolerable knowledge of the Romish religion. A full and perfect knowledge of it is not in this way to be expected. For in the decrees of the council and in the confession of faith above mentioned, many articles are so devoid of joints and nerves

* Some provinces of the Romish church, as Germany, Poland, Italy [and Portugal], have received the council of Trent and its decrees entire and without exceptions or conditions. But others only under certain limitations and conditions, would subject themselves to it. Of these the principal were the countries subject to the king of Spain, which were long in controversy with the Roman pontiff respecting the council of Trent, and at last embraced it with a salvo of the rights of the Spanish kings (Salvis Regum Hispaniæ Juribus.) See Giannone, Histoire Civile du Royaume de Naples [livr. lxxxiii. cap. iii. sec. i.], tome iv. p. 235, &c. Others again could never be induced to adopt it. Among these was France. See Masius, Diss. de Contemptu Concilii Tridentini in Gallia, which is one among his collected Dissertations; and Le Courayer's Discours sur la Réception du Concile de Trente, particuliérement en France, which is subjoined to the second volume of his French translation of Father Paul's History of the Council of Trent, p. 775-789. Yet that part of the council which embraces the doctrines of religion was tacitly and by practice admitted as a rule of faith among the French. But the other part, which relates to discipline and ecclesiastical law, has been constantly rejected both publicly and privately, because it is deemed hostile to the authority and power of kings, no less than to the rights and liberties of the French church. See Du Pin, Bibliothèque des Auteurs Ecclésiastiques, tome xv. p. 380, &c. Hungary also is said to have never publicly received this council. See Samuelof, Vita Andr. Dudithii, p. 56. As for the literary history of the council of Trent, the writers of its history, editions of its decrees, &c. see Salig's History of the Council of Trent (in German), vol. iii. p. 190-320, and Köcher's Bibliotheca Theol. Symbolica, p. 325, 377, &c. [As to the reception of the council of Trent in Germany, it did not take place at once. The pope, Pius IV. sent Visconti, the bishop of Vintimiglia, to the emperor Ferdinand I. to persuade him to receive it. But the emperor consented only on two conditions:that the pope should allow his subjects the use of the cup in the sacred supper, and should not debar the clergy from marriage. The same indulgence was craved by the Bavarians. Pius allowed the first but denied the second; and Ferdinand acquiesced, and received the council for himself and his hereditary dominions. The whole German nation has never received it; and the popes have never dared to submit its decrees to the consideration of the diet and to ask their sanction of them. This probably will have been the last general council of Christendom; for it is not probable that the opposing interests of the great, with good policy, will ever again allow of a general council, since the weakness and intrigues of such bodies have been so clearly exhibited by this. The popes would also show themselves not very favourable to another general council, since the right of summoning such a council to meet, and that of presiding in it, would be contested withi them, and as so many appeals would be likely to be made to the proposed general council from their own decisions.- Schl.