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Schools, 1888. TAYLOR, A. R.-Organization, Courses of Study, and Methods in Normal Schools, 1886.-Opening Address, Normai Department at Chicago 1887.

THIRY, J. H.-School Savings Banks in the United States, 1893.

THOMPSON, C. O.-Scope and Method of Physical

Sciences in Common Schools, 1872.-The Re-
lation of Manual Labor to Technological
Training, 1877.-Conservatism of Pedagogic
Energy, 1881.

THOMPSON, L. S.-Reasons Why Drawing Should be Taught in Public Schools, 1877.-Educated Labor, 1879.-The Decay of Apprenticeship, 1884. How Drawing Should be Taught in our Public Schools, 1884.-The Educational Value of Construction Overestimated, 1888.Report on Work in Drawing, 1888.-Systems of Drawing in the United States, 1889. THOMPSON, Rev. Robert.-The Neighborhood: A Starting Point in Education, 1879. THOMPSON, S. R. -Opening Address in Industrial Department, 1876.-Relation of

Common

Schools to Industrial Education, 1877.-Annual Report of the Industrial Department, 1881. Report of the Industrial Department, 1882.-Report of the Industrial Department,

1885.

THORNTON, Wm.-Position of Modern Mathe

matical Theories in our Higher Courses of Pure Mathematics, 1876.

THURBER, Samuel.- The Order of Studies in the High School Course, 1887.

THURSTON, Robert H.-Technological Schools:

Their Purpose and its Accomplishment (with discussion), 1893.

TILLOTSON, D. C.-Teachers' Institutes, 1886. TITCHENER, E. B.-Wundt's Psychology of the

Will (with discussion), 1893.

TODD, Samuel B.-Necessity and Means of Devel oping Individuality, 1891.

TOMLINS, Wm. L.-Fervent Voice: Its Nature and Influence, 1887.

TÖRNGREN, L. M.-The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, 1893.-A Perfect Physical Education is Indispensable in order to Produce an Ideal Education, 1893. TOURJEE, Eben.-A Plea for Vocal Music in Public Schools, 1870.

TRACY, F.-The Language of Children, 1893. TROUSDALE, LEON.-Educational Necessities of the South, 1875.

TRYBOM, J. H.-Sloyd as an Educational Subject,

1892.

TUCKER, H. H.-Advancement of Higher Education, 1881.

TUPPER, Mrs. K. N. T.-Normal Training for Teachers of Public Schools, 1888. TUTWILER, Miss Julia S.-Our Brother in Stripes and in the Schoolroom, 1890.-A Year in a German Model School, 1891.-Individualization by Grouping, 1892.

TWEED, B. F.-The Best Culture for Making

Good Citizens, 1888.

TYLER, H. M.-Pronunciation of Latin and Greek, 1871.

U.

UNDERWOOD, F. H.-The Place of English Literature in Popular Education, 1871.

V.

VAILE, E. 0.-What should we Seek to Accomplish in a Reading Exercise? 1880.-Teaching Current Events in School, 1892. VANBOKELEN, L.-Inaugural Address at Tren ton, 1869.

VANCE, T. C. H.-The Best Normal Training for Country Teachers, 1881.

VENABLE, W. H.-Memorial Paper on the Death of W. D. Henkle, 1882.-First Schools in Ohio, 1889.

VICKROY, T. W.-The Spelling Reform, 1891. VILAS, Hon. Wm. F.-Education in the Northwest, 1884.

VINCENT, Dr. J. R.-The Means and Ends of Culture for the American People, 1887.

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WESCOTT, O. S.-Music in the Public Schools,
1886. What has been Done for Music in
Public Schools? 1887.
WEST, Andrew F.-The Re'ation of Secondary
Education to the American University, 1885.-
The Evolution of Liberal Education, 1893.
WEST, W. M.-The Purpose and Scope of History
in the High School, 1890.

WEY, Hamilton D.-Physical Training of Criminals, 1893.

WHEELOCK, Miss Lucy E.-They have Eyes and Ears, 1890.

WHITE, E. E.-Opening Address in Supt. Department, 1868.-The Criterion of School Education, 1869.-First Steps in Teaching Reading, 1871.-Inaugural Address at Boston, 1872.Several Problems in Graded School Management, 1874.-Technical Training in American Schools, 1880.-Industrial. Education, 1881.The National Industrial College: Its History, Work, and Ethics, 1882.-Moral Training in Public Schools, 1886.-School Superintend ence in Cities, 1890.-Discussion of Industrial Education, 1879.-Various Discussions, 1890.Discussion on Manual Training, 1891.-Religion in the School (with discussion), 1893. WHITE, Joseph.-Christianity in the Public Schools, 1869.-Practical Results of Compulsory Education, 1883.

WHITE, W.-The Educational Needs of the Border States, 1866.

WICKERSHAM, J. P.-Education as an Element in
Reconstruction of the Union, 1865.-American
Education for American People, 1866.-The
State in Relation to Higher Education, 1869.--
A National System of Compulsory Educa-
tion, 1871.-Education and Crime, 1881.-The
Leading Characteristics of American Systems
of Education, 1881.-Weak Places in our Sys-
tems of Public Instruction, 1881.
WIGGINS, B. L.-Forms of Discipline and Disci-
pline of Forms, 1890.

WILBUR, H. B.- Object Teaching, 1864.
WILLIAMS, Mrs. Delia Lathrop. See Miss Delia
A. Lathrop.

WILLIAMS, Lillie A.-The New Psychology in
Normal Schools, 1893.

WILLIAMS, Mrs. N. S.- The Union of Oral and Book Teaching, 1887.

WILLIAMS, S. G.-Place and Use of Text-Books,

1871.-Value to Teachers of the History of Education, 1889.-The Natural Sciences in Elementary Education, 1892.-Higher Aca demic Degrees in Pedagogy (with discussion), 1893.

WILSON, Woodrow. Should an Antecedent Liberal Education be Required of Students in Law, Medicine, and Theology, 1893.

WILT, A. D.-The Relation of Business Instruction to Industrial, Commercial, and Financial Interests, 1893.

WILTSE, Miss Sarah E.-Sound Blindness, 1889. WINCHELL, A.-Geology in Early Education, 1890. WINES, Dr. E. C.-Popular Education in France, 1879.

WINES, Wm.-The Condition of the South in Regard to Education, 1866.

WINSHIP, A. E.-The Educational Cure of Mormonism, 1886.-The Developing Element in Education, 1887.--The Relation of Musical Instruction to our Educational Systems, 1889. WISE, Henry A.-Mannal Training in Primary and Grammar Schools, 1889.

WOLFE, L. E.-To what Extent can a Public School System be improved by Legislation? 1892. WOLVERTON, N.-Manual Training, and its Place in the Educational System of Ontario, 1891. WOOD, T. D.-Some Unsolved Problems in Phys:cal Education, 1893.

WOODMAN,.-Drawing as a Branch of Elementary Education, 1869.

WOODWARD, C. M.-The Function of an American Manual Training School, 1882.-The Fruit of Manual Education, 1883.-The Function of the Public School, 1887.-The Relation of Manuai Training Schools to Technical Schools, 1888. The Results of the St. Louis Manual Training School, 1889.-Classification, Nomenclature, and Practical Details of Manual Training Schools, 1890.-The Teaching of ToolWork, 1891.

WOODWARD, C. M.-What should be Added to the Essential Branches of themhetary Course of Study to Meet the Industrial Needs of the Localities? 1893.-The French System of Industrial and Manual Instruction (discussion), 1893.-New Demands upon Schools by the World's Industries, 1893.

WRIGHT, J. H.-The Place of Original Research in a College Education, 1882. WRIGHT, Ramsey.-The Relation between Liberal and Professional Study, 1891. WYCKOFF, Adelaide E.-Constitutional Bad Spellers, 1893.

Y.

YOUMANS, Edward L.-The Study of Matter and the Progress of Man, 1860.

YOUNG, Mrs. Ella F.-How to Teach Parents to Discriminate between Good and Bad Teachers, 1887.-Grading and Classification, 1893. YOUNG, George C.-The Value of Music in Public Education as a Means of Discipline and Culture, 1892.

YOUNG, John.-The Laws of Nature, 1858.

Z.

ZETTLER, Moritz.-Gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony, 1893.

CHAPTER IV.

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO-ITS CHARACTER AND

FACILITIES.

Though the possibility and the necessity of educating the negro population of the United States have been very thoroughly discussed by legislative and philanthropic bodies and the periodical press, nevertheless there seems wanting a systematic and detailed statement of the facilities for the instruction of colored persons within the Union and of the more general features which characterize their school life. In supplying and in systematizing a body of facts of this description for those interested in or wishing to generalize upon the matter, it will suffice merely to mention its far more interesting and important side.

An attempt is being made to educate a people as a body whose great grandparents were African savages or plantation slaves. This people, if uneducated, is hopelessly at the mercy of a race far more enlightened and numerous than itself, and, if educated, must struggle for existence beside this same more powerful race from which it is unmistakably differentiated on the moral side by the hundreds of years of disciplining freedom it has yet to undergo, and the absence of self-effectuation and selfrestraint, qualities freedom entails, while on the physical side it is still more unmistakably differentiated by the color of its skin. To a people thus lightly ballasted with independent social experience and racial prestige it is apt to seem that everything is a matter of language, and that the ability to talk effectively is an open sesame to every avenue of wealth, power, and consideration enjoyed by the dominant race, and that success in those avenues is obtained by the verbiage of sophistry rather than by patient foresight, and skillful energy. But by those who wish to secure what sanguinary battles and constitutional amendments can not secure, that is to say, the abolition of the slavery of ignorance, far different ideas are held. While the State has endeavored to do its duty, a warmer effort was long ago inaugurated by the missionary enthusiasm of the Christian, and the boundless optimism of the man of commerce, to educate teachers for the schools and ministers for the pulpits of the colored people of the South in order that through their efforts the problems of real life might be comprehended by the descendants of the physically emancipated masses now located in that portion of the Union.

Other than the fact that it is provided for persons of African descent, the education of the negro in several of the United States is characterized by three features: (1) Its cost is borne almost wholly by the white portion of the community; (2) it is almost always elementary; and (3) it is becoming more and more industrial in the sense that it is training its pupils in the village industries of carpentry, wheelwrighting, blacksmithing, and in the possibly less rural vocations of shoemaking and printing.

"These are the resources with which individual human beings are able to procure the satisfaction of their wants and industry comes into being and grows." (Growth of English Industry and Commerce, vol. 1, p. 10. W. Cunningham.)

"I desire to state," says Dr. Haygood in one of his reports, "without qualification and as the result of long-continued and careful investigation, that the children of parents taught in these higher schools in the earlier years of this great movement show at the beginning of their school course marked superiority to the children of untaught parents."

ITS COST IS BORNE BY THE WHITE RACE.

That this is so is natural whether we consider the fact in connection with the schools supported by State or municipal taxation or with those supported by the generosity of churches or wealthy persons. The Southern States are agricultural, and in an agricultural community the great source of revenue is tax upon land. As the land in these States is, from the very nature of things, in the possession of the former masters, it follows that they are taxed to educate the children of their former slaves. Still it would be injustice to the colored race not to go a step farther and inquire by whom the agricultural land in the late slave-holding States is put in value; by whom it is worked that it will support a tax. The answer may be given in a sentence, a universal exodus of the negro would probably not be tolerated in the cotton States. Thus it is apparent that there is only a verisimilitude of injustice in the dominant and land-holding race educating the youth of the laboring population. It must be remembered, however, that the tax is peculiarly onerous, as there is the necessity of supporting two systems of schools. Yet it is only possible to educate colored children in this way and the tax is borne with patience.

But while the Southern States are educating the negro, many persons, under the form or direction of religious or special philanthropic bodies, have founded and supported institutions which in name are plainly intended for the higher education of such colored persons as have the desire to obtain an education of that description. It may therefore be said that potentially the best work for the elevation of the colored race is done in the so-called colored normal schools, in institutions supported by the sale of national lands for the purpose of fostering agriculture and the mechanic arts, and in the upper classes of the numerous "academies," "colleges," and "universities" supported by religious bodies or endowed by private individuals.

As far as known to this Bureau there are 107 of these institutions, of which 105 are situated in the Southern States. In them the charge for instruction is exceedingly low, usually about a dollar or two a month in the normal, academic, and collegiate departments, though frequently it is given without cost. But as low as this charge is, when made, it is paralleled by the extremely low rate at which lodging and food are furnished and the very moderate incidental fees exacted. In general it may be said that the entire expense to the colored student is in the neighborhood of $75 or $100 for a session of nine months. Sometimes it is as low as $50 or $60, sometimes it is as high as $125 or $150. The lowest of course are the minimum figures at which the student can exist. But it must not be supposed that this charge for tuition, lodging, and food covers the cost of the presence of the student at any particular institution. At Claflin University, for instance, where the entire charge to students in the higher grades is about $7.50 a month, it is found "that the small amount paid by the students is not sufficient to meet one-tenth of the expenses of the institution, and it thus appears that every student is aided to the extent of about nine-tenths of his expenses," that is to say, every student costs the institution to instruct, lodge, and feed about $68 a month. At Fisk University "the charges to students do not cover one-half the actual cost of the advantages furnished them." By whom, then, is the cost of these 107 institutions borne? In the case of Claflin University it is borne by the contributions of the friends of education, through the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society; by the proceeds of the sale of national lands; by the State of South Carolina, and by the John F. Slater and the

"I must yet advert to another most interesting topic-the free schools. In this particular New England may be allowed to claim, I think, a merit of a peculiar character. She early adopted and has constantly maintained the principle that it is the undoubted right and the bounden duty of Government to provide for the instruction of all youth. That which is elsewhere left to chance or charity we assume by law. For the purpose of public instruction we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion to his property, and we look not to the question whether he himself have or have not children to be benefited by the education for which he pays. We regard it as a wise and liberal system of police by which property and life and the peace of society are secured." (Daniel Webster, in discourse on "First Settlement of New England," December 22, 1820.)

2 Several not reporting however for 1892-93.

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